Sejarah Gereja Katolik: Perbedaan antara revisi

Pada kurun waktu ini, Gereja harus menghadapi penyelewengan-penyelewengan yang dilakukan pemerintah Portugis dan Spanyol di daerah-daerah koloni mereka.<!-- In South America, the Jesuits protected native peoples from enslavement by establishing semi-independent settlements called [[Jesuit Reductions|reductions]](where they instead tortured, forced religious conversion, traumatized, and enslaved Indigenous peoples) . [[Pope Gregory XVI]], challenging Spanish and Portuguese sovereignty, appointed his own candidates as bishops in the colonies, condemned slavery and the [[History of slavery|slave trade]] in 1839 (papal bull ''[[In supremo apostolatus]]''), and approved the ordination of native clergy in spite of government racism.<ref name="Duffy221">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 221</ref>

 

[[Christianity in India]] has a tradition of [[Saint Thomas Christians|Thomas]] establishing the faith in Kerala. They are called St. Thomas Christians. The community was very small until the Jesuit [[Francis Xavier]] (1502–1552) began missionary work. [[Roberto de Nobili]] (1577–1656), a [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionary to Southern India followed in his path. He pioneered [[inculturation]], adopting many [[Brahmin]] customs which were not, in his opinion, contrary to Christianity. He lived like a Brahmin, learned [[Sanskrit]], and presented Christianity as a part of Indian beliefs, not identical with the Portuguese culture of the colonialists. He permitted the use of all customs, which in his view did not directly contradict Christian teachings. By 1640 there were 40 000 Christians in [[Madurai]] alone. In 1632, Pope [[Gregory XV]] gave permission for this approach. But strong anti-Jesuit sentiments in Portugal, France, and even in Rome, resulted in a reversal. This ended the successful Catholic missions in India.<ref>Franzen, 323</ref> On 12 September 1744, [[Benedict XIV]] forbade the so-called [[Malabar rites]] in India, with the result that leading Indian castes, who wanted to adhere to their traditional cultures, turned away from the Catholic Church.<ref>Robert Eric Frykenberg, ''Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present'' (Oxford University Press, 2008)</ref><ref>Stephen Neill, ''A History of Christianity in India'' (Cambridge University Press, 1984)</ref>

 

{{See also|Christianity in the 18th century|Modern history of Christianity#Revivalism (1720–1906)}}

The anti-clericalism of the [[French Revolution]] saw the wholesale nationalisation of church property and attempts to establish a state-run church. Large numbers of priests refused to take an oath of compliance to the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]], leading to the Church being outlawed and replaced by a new religion of the worship of "Reason" but it never gained popularity. In this period, all monasteries were destroyed, 30,000&nbsp;priests were exiled and hundreds more were killed.<ref>Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), pp. 283–5</ref><ref>Kenneth Scott Latourette, ''Christianity in a Revolutionary Age. Vol. I: The 19th Century in Europe; Background and the Roman Catholic Phase'' (1958) pp 120–27</ref>

When [[Pope Pius VI]] sided against the revolution in the [[First Coalition]], [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] invaded Italy. The 82-year-old pope was taken as a prisoner to France in February 1798 and soon died. To win popular support for his rule, Napoleon re-established the Catholic Church in France through the [[Concordat of 1801]]. The church lands were never returned, however the priests and other religious were given salaries by the government, which maintained church properties through tax revenues. Catholics were allowed to continue some of their schools. The end of the Napoleonic wars, signaled by the [[Congress of Vienna]], brought Catholic revival and the return of the Papal States to the pope; the Jesuits were restored.<ref name="Duffy216">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), pp. 214–6</ref><ref>Latourette, ''Vol. I: The 19th Century in Europe; Background and the Roman Catholic Phase'' (1958) pp 127–29, 399–462</ref>

 

France remained basically Catholic. The census of 1872 counted 36 million people, of whom 35.4&nbsp;million were listed as Catholics, 600,000 as Protestants, 50,000 as Jews and 80,000 as freethinkers The Revolution failed to destroy the Catholic Church, and Napoleon's concordat of 1801 restored its status. The return of the Bourbons in 1814 brought back many rich nobles and landowners who supported the Church, seeing it as a bastion of conservatism and monarchism. However the monasteries with their vast land holdings and political power were gone; much of the land had been sold to urban entrepreneurs who lacked historic connections to the land and the peasants. Few new priests were trained in the 1790–1814 period, and many left the church. The result was that the number of parish clergy plunged from 60,000 in 1790 to 25,000 in 1815, many of them elderly. Entire regions, especially around Paris, were left with few priests. On the other hand, some traditional regions held fast to the faith, led by local nobles and historic families.<ref>Robert Gildea, ''Children of the Revolution: The French, 1799–1914''(2008) p 120</ref> The comeback was slow—very slow in the larger cities and industrial areas. With systematic missionary work and a new emphasis on liturgy and devotions to the Virgin Mary, plus support from Napoleon III, there was a comeback. In 1870 there were 56,500 priests, representing a much younger and more dynamic force in the villages and towns, with a thick network of schools, charities and lay organizations.<ref>Roger Price, ''A Social History of Nineteenth-Century France'' (1987) ch 7</ref> Conservative Catholics held control of the national government, 1820–1830, but most often played secondary political roles or had to fight the assault from republicans, liberals, socialists and seculars.<ref>Kenneth Scott Latourette, ''Christianity in a Revolutionary Age. Vol. I: The 19th Century in Europe; Background and the Roman Catholic Phase'' (1958) pp 400–412</ref><ref>Theodore Zeldin, ''France, 1848–1945'' (1977) vol 2 pp 983–1040</ref>

 

Throughout the lifetime of the Third Republic there were battles over the status of the Catholic Church. The French clergy and bishops were closely associated with the Monarchists and many of its hierarchy were from noble families. Republicans were based in the anticlerical middle class who saw the Church's alliance with the monarchists as a political threat to republicanism, and a threat to the modern spirit of progress. The Republicans detested the church for its political and class affiliations; for them, the church represented outmoded traditions, superstition and monarchism. The Republicans were strengthened by Protestant and Jewish support. Numerous laws were passed to weaken the Catholic Church. In 1879, priests were excluded from the administrative committees of hospitals and of boards of charity; in 1880, new measures were directed against the religious congregations; from 1880 to 1890 came the substitution of lay women for nuns in many hospitals. Napoleon's 1801 Concordat continued in operation but in 1881, the government cut off salaries to priests it disliked.<ref>Philippe Rigoulot, "Protestants and the French nation under the Third Republic: Between recognition and assimilation," ''National Identities,'' March 2009, Vol. 11 Issue 1, pp 45–57</ref>

 

When [[Leo XIII]] became pope in 1878 he tried to calm Church-State relations. In 1884 he told French bishops not to act in a hostile manner to the State. In 1892 he issued an encyclical advising French Catholics to rally to the Republic and defend the Church by participating in Republican politics. This attempt at improving the relationship failed. Deep-rooted suspicions remained on both sides and were inflamed by the [[Dreyfus Affair]]. Catholics were for the most part anti-dreyfusard. The Assumptionists published anti-Semitic and anti-republican articles in their journal ''La Croix''. This infuriated Republican politicians, who were eager to take revenge. Often they worked in alliance with Masonic lodges. The [[Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau|Waldeck-Rousseau Ministry]] (1899–1902) and the [[Émile Combes|Combes Ministry (1902–05)]] fought with the Vatican over the appointment of bishops. Chaplains were removed from naval and military hospitals (1903–04), and soldiers were ordered not to frequent Catholic clubs (1904). Combes as Prime Minister in 1902, was determined to thoroughly defeat Catholicism. He closed down all parochial schools in France. Then he had parliament reject authorisation of all religious orders. This meant that all fifty four orders were dissolved and about 20,000 members immediately left France, many for Spain.<ref>Frank Tallett and Nicholas Atkin, ''Religion, society, and politics in France since 1789'' (1991) p. 152</ref> In [[1905 French law on the separation of Church and State|1905 the 1801 Concordat was abrogated; Church and State were finally separated.]] All Church property was confiscated. Public worship was given over to associations of Catholic laymen who controlled access to churches. In practise, Masses and rituals continued. The Church was badly hurt and lost half its priests. In the long run, however, it gained autonomy—for the State no longer had a voice in choosing bishops and Gallicanism was dead.<ref>Robert Gildea, ''Children of the Revolution: The French, 1799–1914'' (2010) ch 12</ref>

 

 

 

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