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Pada 639, Umar menunjuk [[Muawiyah bin Abi Sufyan]] sebagai gubernur Syam setelah gubernur sebelumnya meninggal dalam sebuah wabah di antara 25.000 orang lebih.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wilferd Madelung|title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC|date=15 October 1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64696-3|page=61}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Rahman|1999|p=40}}</ref> Untuk menghentikan usikan Romawi Timur dari arah laut selama [[Peperangan Romawi Timur-Arab]], pada 649 Muawiyah menyusun satu angkatan laut, dengan personilnya adalah para pelaut [[Monofisitisme|Kristen monofisit]], [[Koptik]], dan [[Kristen Suriah Yakubiyah]] serta pasukan Muslim, yang mengalahkan angkatan laut Bizantium pada [[Pertempuran Foinikos]] pada 655, membuka Laut Tengah untuk kapal-kapal Muslim.<ref>{{cite book|author=Archibald Ross Lewis|title=European Naval and Maritime History, 300–1500|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OzIRDbARyWIC&pg=PA24|year=1985|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-32082-7|pages=24–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Leonard Michael Kroll|title=History of the Jihad: Islam Versus Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aAPc3mYwZpIC&pg=PA123|date=2005|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4634-5730-3|pages=123–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Timothy E. Gregory|title=A History of Byzantium|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KIFJiOCSYc8C&pg=PA183|date=26 August 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-5997-8|pages=183–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Mark Weston|title=Prophets and Princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&pg=PA61|date=28 July 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-18257-4|pages=61–}}</ref>
Pasukan-pasukan Muslim awal berkemah jauh dari kota karena Umar khawatir kalau mereka dapat terpikat oleh harta dan kemewahan, menjauhi peribadahan kepada Allah, mengumpulkan kekayaan, dan membentuk dinasti.<ref name="Brill Archive"/><ref>{{cite book|author1=Khalid Muhammad Khalid|author2=Muhammad Khali Khalid|title=Men Around the Messenger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T-uN7tDGSZMC&pg=PA117|date=February 2005|publisher=The Other Press|isbn=978-983-9154-73-3|pages=117–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=P. M. Holt|author2=Peter Malcolm Holt|author3=Ann K. S. Lambton|author4=Bernard Lewis|title=The Cambridge History of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UfQWT_esc5cC&pg=PA605|date=1977|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29138-5|pages=605–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Maulana Muhammad Ali|title=The Early Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=flg-UX6fOdkC&pg=PT101|date=9 August 2011|publisher=eBookIt.com|isbn=978-1-934271-25-4|pages=101–}}</ref> Dengan tetap berada di kemah-kemah ini jauh dari kota juga memastikan tidak adanya tekanan bagi penduduk lokal sehingga tetap berjalan normal. Beberapa pangkalan kemah ini kemudian tumbuh menjadi kota seperti [[Basrah]] dan [[Kufah]] di Iraq dan [[Fustat]] di Mesir.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Rahman|1999|p=37}}</ref>
When Umar was assassinated in 644, [[Uthman ibn Affan]] second cousin and twice son-in-law of Muhammad became the next caliph. As the Arabic language is written without vowels, speakers of different Arabic dialects and other languages recited the Quran with phonetic variations that could alter the meaning of the text. When Uthman ibn Affan became aware of this, he ordered a standard copy of the Quran to be prepared. Begun during his reign, the [[History of the Quran|compilation of the Quran]] was finished some time between 650 and 656, and copies were sent out to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire.<ref>Schimmel, Annemarie; Barbar Rivolta (Summer, 1992). "Islamic Calligraphy". ''The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin'', New Series 50 (1): 3.</ref>
After Muhammad's death, the old tribal differences between the Arabs started to resurface. Following the [[Roman–Persian Wars]] and the [[Byzantine–Sassanid Wars]] deep-rooted differences between Iraq (formerly under the Persian [[Sassanid Empire]]) and Syria (formerly under the [[Byzantine Empire]]) also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area.<ref>''Iraq a Complicated State: Iraq's Freedom War'' by Karim M. S. Al-Zubaidi p. 32</ref>
As [[Uthman ibn Affan]] became very old, [[Marwan I]], a relative of Muawiyah, slipped into the vacuum, becoming his secretary and slowly assuming more control. When Uthman was assassinated in 656, [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], a cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, assumed the position of caliph and moved the capital to Kufa in Iraq. Muawiyah I, the governor of Syria, and Marwan I demanded arrest of the culprits. Marwan I manipulated every one and created conflict, which resulted in the [[First Fitna|first civil war]] (the "First Fitna"). Ali was assassinated by [[Kharijites]] in 661. Six months later in 661, in the interest of peace, Ali's son [[Hasan ibn Ali|Hasan]], made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I. In the [[Hasan–Muawiya treaty]], Hasan ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition that he would be just to the people and not establish a dynasty after his death.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wilferd Madelung|title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64696-3|page=232}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sahih-bukhari.com/Pages/Bukhari_3_49.php|title=Sahih Bukhari : Book of "Peacemaking"|first=Sahih|last=Bukhari}}</ref> Muawiyah subsequently broke the conditions of the agreement and established the [[Umayyad dynasty]], with a capital in [[Damascus]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Holt|1977a|pp=67–72}}</ref> [[Husayn ibn Ali]], by then Muhammad's only living grandson, refused to swear allegiance to the Umayyads. He was killed in the [[Battle of Karbala]] the same year, in an event still mourned by Shia on the [[Day of Ashura]]. Unrest, called the [[Second Fitna]] continued, but Muslim rule was extended under Muawiyah to [[Rhodes]], [[Crete]], [[Kabul]], [[Bukhara]], and [[Samarkand]], and expanded in [[North Africa]]. In 664, Arab armies conquered [[Kabul]],<ref>Roberts, J: ''History of the World''. Penguin, 1994.</ref> and in 665 pushed into the [[Maghreb]].<ref>Dermenghem, E. (1958). ''Muhammad and the Islamic tradition''. New York: Harper Brothers. p. 183.</ref>
== Islam di Indonesia ==
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