Wikipedia

Charles Darwin: Perbedaan antara revisi

Jelajahi riwayat secara interaktif
← Revisi sebelumnyaRevisi selanjutnya →
Konten dihapus Konten ditambahkan
VisualTeks wiki
k tag tanpa referensi
Tidak ada ringkasan suntingan
Baris 1:
{{tanpa_referensiother people}}
{{Infobox scientist
|name = Charles Darwin
|image = Charles Darwin seated.jpg
|alt=Three quarter length studio photo showing Darwin's characteristic large forehead and bushy eyebrows with deep set eyes, pug nose and mouth set in a determined look. He is bald on top, with dark hair and long side whiskers but no beard or moustache. His jacket is dark, with very wide lapels, and his trousers are a light check pattern. His shirt has an upright wing collar, and his cravat is tucked into his waistcoat which is a light fine checked pattern.
|caption = Darwin, berusia 45 pada 1854, saat itu bekerja untuk publikasi ''[[Asal-usul Spesies]]''
|caption = Darwin, berusia 45 pada 1854, saat itu bekerja untuk publikasi ''[[Asal-usul Spesies]]''{{sfn|Freeman|2007|p=76}}
|birth_name = Charles Robert Darwin
|birth_date = {{birth date|1809|2|12|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[The Mount, Shrewsbury|The Mount]], [[ShropshireShrewsbury]], [[KerajaanShropshire]], Bersatu Britania Raya dan Irlandia|[[Inggris Raya]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1882|4|19|1809|2|12|df=yes}}
|death_place = [[Rumah Down, Downe]], [[Kent]], Inggris Raya
|residence = Inggris
|citizenship = Britania
|nationality = [[Kerajaan Bersatu Britania Raya dan Irlandia|InggrisBritania Raya]]
|fields = [[Sejarah alam]], [[Geologi]]
|ethnicity = Inggris
|workplaces ='''pendidikan tinggi:'''<br> [[University of Edinburgh Medical School]] (obat) <br />[[Christ's College, Cambridge]] ([[Universitas Cambridge]]) (BA)<br>'''lembaga profesional:''' <br>[[Geological Society of London]]
|fields = [[Sejarah alam|Naturalis]]
|workplaces ='''pendidikan tinggi:'''<br> [[Universitas Edinburgh]] (obat) <br />[[Universitas Cambridge]] (Sarjana biasa of Arts)<br>'''lembaga profesional:''' <br>Geological Society of London
|doctoral_advisor =
|academic_advisors = [[John Stevens Henslow]]<br>[[Adam Sedgwick]]
|doctoral_students =
|notable_students =
|known_for = ''Petualangan[[The Voyage of the Beagle]]''<br>''[[Asal-usul Spesies]]''<br>[[Evolusi]] bymelalui <br>[[Seleksi alam]],<br>[[Nenek moyang bersama]]
|author_abbrev_bot =
|author_abbrev_zoo =
|influences = [[Alexander von Humboldt]]<br>[[John Herschel]]<br>[[Charles Lyell]]
|influenced = [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]]<br>[[Thomas Henry Huxley]]<br>[[George Romanes]]<br>[[Ernst Haeckel]]<br>[[John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury|Sir John Lubbock]]
|awards = {{Plainlist|
|awards = [[Medali Royal]] (1853)<br>Medali Wollaston (1859)<br>Medali Copley (1864)
* [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] (1839)<ref name=frs>{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316060617/https://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/fellows/|archivedate=2015-03-16|url=https://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/fellows/|publisher=Royal Society|location=London|title=Fellows of the Royal Society}}</ref>
* [[Medali Royal]] (1853)
* [[Medali Wollaston]] (1859)
* [[Medali Copley]] (1864)}}
|signature = Charles Darwin Signature.svg
|signature_alt = "Charles Darwin", with the surname underlined by a downward curve that mimics the curve of the initial "C"
|signature_alt =
|footnotes =
|spouse = {{marriage|[[Emma Darwin (]]|1839 - 1882)}}
|children = 10 anak ([[Charles Darwin#Anak|lihat daftar]])
}}
<!--Please consider discussing changes on the talk page, as this opening is the result of a very long consensus-building process.-->
'''Charles Robert Darwin''', {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS|FRGS|FLS|FZS}}<ref name=frs/> ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɑr|w|ɪ|n}};<ref>[http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/darwin "Darwin"] entry in ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]'', HarperCollins Publishers, 1998.</ref> 12&nbsp;Februari 1809&nbsp;– 19&nbsp;April 1882) adalah seorang [[sejarah alam|naturalis]] dan ahli [[geologi]] Inggris,<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|Browne|2004}}</ref> paling dikenal untuk kontribusinya kepada teori evolusi.{{Ref_label|A|I|none}} Dia menetapkan bahwa semua [[spesies]] dari kehidupan telah diturunkan dari waktu ke waktu dari [[nenek moyang bersama]],<ref>{{cite book|author=Coyne, Jerry A. |title=Why Evolution is True|publisher=Viking|year=2009 |pages=8–11|isbn=978-0-670-02053-9}}</ref> dan dalam publikasi bersama dengan [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] memperkenalkan [[teori ilmiah]] bahwa [[Filogeni|pola percabangan]] [[evolusi]] dihasilkan dari sebuah proses yang dia sebut [[seleksi alam]], di mana [[perjuangan untuk eksistensi]] memiliki efek yang sama dengan [[seleksi buatan]] yang terlibat dalam [[pemuliaan selektif]].<ref name="Larson79-111">{{Harvnb|Larson|2004| pp=79–111}}</ref>
 
Darwin menerbitkan teori evolusi dengan bukti kuat dalam buku tahun 1859-nya ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'', mengatasi penolakan ilmiah dari konsep awal dari [[transmutasi spesies]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Why Evolution is True |last = Coyne |first=Jerry A. |authorlink=Jerry Coyne |year=2009 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location= Oxford |isbn=0-19-923084-6 |page=17 |quote=In ''The Origin'', Darwin provided an alternative hypothesis for the development, diversification, and design of life. Much of that book presents evidence that not only supports evolution, but at the same time refutes creationism. In Darwin's day, the evidence for his theories was compelling, but not completely decisive.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Forerunners of Darwin |last=Glass |first=Bentley |authorlink=Bentley Glass |year=1959 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore, MD |isbn= 0-8018-0222-9|page=iv |quote=Darwin's solution is a magnificent synthesis of evidence...a synthesis...compelling in honesty and comprehensiveness}}</ref> Pada 1870-an, [[komunitas ilmiah]] dan banyak dari masyarakat umum menerima [[evolusi sebagai teori dan fakta|evolusi sebagai fakta]]. Namun, banyak yang menyukai [[Tenggelamnya Darwinisme|penjelasan yang menentang]] dan itu tidak diakui sampai munculnya [[sintesis evolusi modern]] dari tahun 1930-an sampai tahun 1950-an bahwa konsensus yang luas dikembangkan di mana seleksi alam adalah mekanisme dasar evolusi.<ref name=JvW>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008}}</ref><ref name=b3847>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=178–179, 338, 347}}</ref> Dalam bentuk yang dimodifikasi, penemuan ilmiah Darwin adalah teori pemersatu [[ilmu kehidupan]], menjelaskan [[Keanekaragaman hayati|keanekaragaman kehidupan]].<ref>[http://darwin-online.org.uk/biography.html The Complete Works of Darwin Online&nbsp;– Biography.] ''darwin-online.org.uk''. Retrieved 2006-12-15<br />{{Harvnb|Dobzhansky|1973}}</ref><ref>As Darwinian scholar Joseph Carroll of the University of Missouri–St. Louis puts it in his introduction to a modern reprint of Darwin's work: "''The Origin of Species'' has special claims on our attention. It is one of the two or three most significant works of all time—one of those works that fundamentally and permanently alter our vision of the world...It is argued with a singularly rigorous consistency but it is also eloquent, imaginatively evocative, and rhetorically compelling." {{cite book |title=On the origin of species by means of natural selection |editor=Carroll, Joseph |year=2003 |publisher=Broadview |location= Peterborough, Ontario|isbn= 1-55111-337-6|page=15 |url= }}</ref>
'''Charles Robert Darwin''' ({{lahirmati|[[Shrewsbury]], [[Shropshire]], [[Inggris]]|12|12|1809|[[Downe]], [[Kent]], [[Inggris]]|19|4|1882}}) adalah seorang [[Sejarah alam|naturalis]] [[Inggris]] yang teori revolusionernya meletakkan landasan bagi teori [[evolusi]] modern dan prinsip garis keturunan yang sama (''common descent'') dengan mengajukan [[seleksi alam]] sebagai mekanismenya. Teori ini kini dianggap sebagai komponen integral dari [[biologi]] (ilmu hayat).
 
Minat awal Darwin di alam membuatnya mengabaikan [[pendidikan kedokteran]] di [[University of Edinburgh Medical School|Universitas Edinburgh]]; sebaliknya, ia membantu untuk menyelidiki [[invertebrata]] laut. Studi di [[Universitas Cambridge]] ([[Christ's College, Cambridge|Christ's College]]) mendorong semangat untuk [[ilmu alam]].<ref name=whowas>{{Harvnb|Leff|2000|loc=[http://www.aboutdarwin.com/darwin/WhoWas.html About Charles Darwin]}}</ref> [[Pelayaran kedua HMS Beagle|Pelayaran lima tahunnya]] pada {{HMS|Beagle}} mengukuhkan dia sebagai ahli geologi terkemuka yang observasi dan teorinya mendukung ide [[uniformitarian]] [[Charles Lyell]], dan publikasi [[The Voyage of the Beagle|jurnal tentang pelayaran]] itu membuatnya terkenal sebagai penulis populer.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 210, 284–285}}</ref>
Ia mengembangkan minatnya dalam sejarah alam ketika ia mula-mula belajar [[ilmu kedokteran]], dan kemudian [[teologi]], di universitas. Perjalanan lautnya ke seluruh dunia selama lima tahun di atas kapal [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']] tulisan-tulisannya yang berikutnya menjadikannya seorang [[geologi]]s terkemuka dan penulis yang terkenal. Pengamatan [[biologi]]snya membawanya kepada kajian tentang [[transmutasi spesies]] dan ia mengembangkan teorinya tentang seleksi alam pada 1838. Karena sadar sepenuhnya bahwa orang-orang lain yang mengemukakan gagasan-gagasan yang dianggap sesat seperti itu mengalami hukuman yang hebat, ia hanya menyampaikan penelitiannya ini kepada teman-teman terdekatnya. Namun ia meneruskan penelitiannya dengan menyadari akan munculnya berbagai keberatan terhadap hasilnya. Namun pada 1858 informasi bahwa [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] juga menemukan teori serupa mendorongnya melakukan penerbitan bersama tentang [[teori Darwin]].
 
Bingung dengan distribusi geografis satwa liar dan [[fosil]] yang ia kumpulkan dalam pelayaran, Darwin memulai penyelidikan rinci dan pada 1838 menyusun teorinya tentang seleksi alam.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=263–274}}</ref> Meskipun ia membahas ide-idenya dengan beberapa naturalis, ia butuh waktu untuk penelitian dan pekerjaan geologinya memiliki prioritas.<ref>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=184, 187}}</ref> Ia menuliskan teorinya pada tahun 1858 ketika Alfred Russel Wallace mengirimnya esai yang menggambarkan ide yang sama, mendorong segera publikasi bersama dari [[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection|kedua teori mereka]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Beddall | first1 = B. G. | title = Wallace, Darwin, and the Theory of Natural Selection | journal = Journal of the History of Biology| volume = 1 | issue = 2| pages = 261–323 | year = 1968 | doi = 10.1007/BF00351923| url = http://www.springerlink.com/content/n1gh3n4474th3385/fulltext.pdf| format = PDF}}</ref> Karya Darwin mendirikan penurunan dengan modifikasi evolusioner sebagai penjelasan ilmiah yang dominan dari diversifikasi di alam.<ref name = JvW/> Pada tahun 1871 ia memeriksa [[evolusi manusia]] dan [[seleksi seksual]] dalam ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]'', diikuti oleh ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]''. Penelitiannya pada tanaman diterbitkan dalam serangkaian buku, dan dalam buku terakhirnya, ia memeriksa [[cacing tanah]] dan efeknya pada tanah.<ref>{{Harvnb|Freeman|1977}}</ref>
Bukunya ''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life'' (biasanya disingkat menjadi ''[[The Origin of Species]]'') ([[1859]]) merupakan karyanya yang paling terkenal sampai sekarang. Buku ini menjelaskan evolusi melalui [[garis keturunan yang sama]] sebagai penjelasan ilmiah yang dominan mengenai keanekaragaman di dalam alam. Darwin diangkat menjadi [[Fellow of the Royal Society]], melanjutkan penelitiannya, dan menulis serangkaian buku tentang tanaman dan binatang, termasuk manusia, dan yang menonjol adalah ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]'' dan ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]''. Bukunya yang terakhir adalah tentang [[cacing tanah]].
 
Darwin menjadi terkenal secara internasional, telah digambarkan sebagai salah satu tokoh paling berpengaruh dalam sejarah manusia,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.newscientist.com/special/darwin-200|title=Special feature: Darwin 200|accessdate=2 April 2011 | work=New Scientist}}</ref> dan keunggulannya sebagai ilmuwan dihormati dengan pemakaman di [[Westminster Abbey]].<ref name=DarwinsBurial>{{Harvnb|Leff|2000|loc=[http://www.aboutdarwin.com/darwin/burial.html Darwin's Burial]}}<br/>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|pp=60–61}}</ref>
Sebagai tanda pengakuan terhadap kehebatan Darwin, ia dikebumikan di [[Westminster Abbey]], bersama dengan [[William Herschel]] dan [[Isaac Newton]].
 
== Kehidupan ==
Baris 143 ⟶ 150:
Walaupun Darwin tidak membahas evolusi manusia secara terang-terangan, bukunya mendapat tantangan keras, baik dari kaum ilmiah, maupun masyarakat, terutama pihak gereja. Di periode yang sulit ini, Darwin didampingi oleh salah satu kawan setianya, [[Thomas Huxley]], yang dijuluki "Darwin Bulldog". Secara jitu dan tajam, Huxley membela Darwin teori dari serangan-serangan. Salah satu episode yang terkenal ialah debat antara Huxley dengan Bishop [[Samuel Wilberforce]].
 
== Lihat pula ==
{{zoologi}}
{{Portal|Biologi}}
<!-- Please avoid repeating links above -->
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Creation-evolution controversy]]
* [[European and American voyages of scientific exploration]]
* [[Harriet (kura-kura)]]
* [[Sejarah biologi]]
* [[Sejarah pemikiran evolusi]]
* [[List of coupled cousins]]
* [[List of multiple discoveries#19th century|List of multiple discoveries]]
* [[Multiple discovery]]
* [[Portraits of Charles Darwin]]
* [[Tinamou egg]]
* [[Universal Darwinism]]
{{div col end}}
 
== Catatan ==
{{refbegin}}
Charles Darwin dilahirkan pada hari yang sama dengan [[Abraham Lincoln]]
'''<small>I</small>.''' {{Note_label|A|I|none}} Darwin was eminent as a [[naturalist]], geologist, [[biologist]], and author; after working as a physician's assistant and two years as a [[medical student]] was educated as a clergyman; and was trained in [[taxidermy]].<ref name=ODNB>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|Browne|2004|}}</ref>
 
'''<small>II</small>.''' {{Note_label|B|II|none}} [[Robert FitzRoy]] was to become known after the voyage for [[biblical literalism]], but at this time he had considerable interest in Lyell's ideas, and they met before the voyage when Lyell asked for observations to be made in South America. FitzRoy's diary during the ascent of the River Santa Cruz in [[Patagonia]] recorded his opinion that the plains were [[raised beach]]es, but on return, newly married to a very religious lady, he recanted these ideas.{{Harv|Browne|1995|pp=186, 414}}
== Lihat pula ==
{{Commons|Charles Darwin}}
{{Commonscat|Charles Darwin}}
* [[Harriet]] - kura-kura Galápagos, diperkirakan pernah dimiliki Darwin, mati pada [[24 Juni]] [[2006]] pada usia sekitar 176 tahun
* [[Patrick Matthew]]
* [http://www.darwinadventure.com/galapagos-charles-darwin.htm Charles Darwin]
{{lifetime|1809|1882|Darwin, Charles}}
 
'''<small>III</small>.''' {{Note_label|C|III|none}} See, for example, WILLA volume 4, ''[http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/old-WILLA/fall95/DeSimone.html Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Feminization of Education]'' by Deborah M. De Simone: "Gilman shared many basic educational ideas with the generation of thinkers who matured during the period of "intellectual chaos" caused by Darwin's Origin of the Species. Marked by the belief that individuals can direct human and social evolution, many progressives came to view education as the panacea for advancing social progress and for solving such problems as urbanisation, poverty, or immigration."
 
'''<small>IV</small>.''' {{Note_label|D|IV|none}} See, for example, the song "A lady fair of lineage high" from [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]'s ''[[Princess Ida]]'', which describes the descent of man (but not woman!) from apes.
 
'''<small>V</small>.''' {{Note_label|E|V|none}} [[Genetics|Geneticists]] studied human heredity as [[Mendelian inheritance]], while [[eugenics]] movements sought to manage society, with a focus on social class in the United Kingdom, and on disability and ethnicity in the United States, leading to geneticists seeing this as impractical [[pseudoscience]]. A shift from voluntary arrangements to "negative" eugenics included [[compulsory sterilisation]] laws in the United States, copied by [[Nazi Germany]] as the basis for [[Nazi eugenics]] based on virulent racism and "[[racial hygiene]]".<br />({{Cite news | last = Thurtle| first =Phillip| date =17 December 1996| title =the creation of genetic identity| periodical =SEHR| volume = 5| issue =Supplement: Cultural and Technological Incubations of Fascism| url =http://www.stanford.edu/group/SHR/5-supp/text/thurtle.html| accessdate =11 November 2008| ref = harv}}{{Cite news| last = Edwards| first =A. W. F.| date = 1 April 2000 | title =The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection
| periodical = Genetics| volume = 154| issue =April 2000| pages = 1419–1426| url =http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/154/4/1419#The_Eclipse_of_Darwinism| accessdate =11 November 2008| pmid = 10747041| pmc = 1461012| ref = harv}}<br />{{cite web | last = Wilkins | first = John | title = Evolving Thoughts: Darwin and the Holocaust 3: eugenics | url = http://scienceblogs.com/evolvingthoughts/2006/09/darwin_and_the_holocaust_3_eug_1.php | accessdate =11 November 2008}})
 
'''<small>VI</small>.''' {{Note_label|F|VI|none}} Darwin did not share the then common view that other races are inferior, and said of his [[taxidermy]] tutor [[John Edmonstone]], a freed black slave, "I used often to sit with him, for he was a very pleasant and intelligent man".<ref name=eddy/>
 
Early in the ''Beagle'' voyage, he nearly lost his position on the ship when he criticised FitzRoy's defence and praise of slavery. {{Harv|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=76 74]}} He wrote home about "how steadily the general feeling, as shown at elections, has been rising against Slavery. What a proud thing for England if she is the first European nation which utterly abolishes it! I was told before leaving England that after living in slave countries all my opinions would be altered; the only alteration I am aware of is forming a much higher estimate of the negro character." {{harv|Darwin|1887|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.1&pageseq=264 246]}} Regarding [[Fuegians]], he "could not have believed how wide was the difference between savage and civilized man: it is greater than between a wild and domesticated animal, inasmuch as in man there is a greater power of improvement", but he knew and liked civilised Fuegians like [[Jemmy Button]]: "It seems yet wonderful to me, when I think over all his many good qualities, that he should have been of the same race, and doubtless partaken of the same character, with the miserable, degraded savages whom we first met here."{{Harv|Darwin|1845|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F14&viewtype=text&pageseq=218 205, 207–208]}}
 
In the ''[[Descent of Man]]'', he mentioned the Fuegians and Edmonstone when arguing against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species".<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.1&pageseq=227 214], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=245 232].}}</ref>
 
He rejected the ill-treatment of native people, and for example wrote of massacres of [[Patagonia]]n men, women, and children, "Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just war, because it is against barbarians. Who would believe in this age that such atrocities could be committed in a Christian civilized country?"{{harv|Darwin|1845|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F14&pageseq=115 102]}}
{{refend}}
 
==Kutipan==
{{reflist|20em}}
 
==Referensi==
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
* {{cite news
| last = Anonymous
| year = 1882
| title =Obituary: Death Of Chas. Darwin
| periodical =[[The New York Times]]
| issue =21 April 1882
| url =http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0212.html
| accessdate =30 October 2008
| ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Balfour
| first =J. H.
| authorlink = John Hutton Balfour
| date = 11 May 1882
| title = [[s:Transactions & Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh/Obituary Notice of Charles Robert Darwin|Obituary Notice of Charles Robert Darwin]]
| journal=[[Transactions & Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh]]
| issue = 14
| pages = 284–298|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last = Bannister
| first =Robert C.
| year = 1989
| title = Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought.
| location = Philadelphia
| publisher=Temple University Press
| isbn =0-87722-566-4|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last = Bowler
| first = Peter J.
| year = 2003
| title = Evolution: The History of an Idea
| edition = 3rd
| publisher=University of California Press
| isbn = 0-520-23693-9|ref=harv }}
* {{cite book
| last = Browne
| first = E. Janet
| authorlink = Janet Browne
| year = 1995
| title = Charles Darwin: vol. 1 Voyaging
| publication-place = London
| publisher=Jonathan Cape
| isbn = 1-84413-314-1|ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Browne
| first = E. Janet
| year = 2002
| title = Charles Darwin: vol. 2 The Power of Place
| publication-place = London
| publisher=Jonathan Cape
| isbn = 0-7126-6837-3|ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Darwin
| first = Charles
| year = 1835
| title = Extracts from letters to Professor Henslow
| publication-place = Cambridge
| publisher=[privately printed]
| url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1&viewtype=text&pageseq=1
| accessdate =1 November 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last = Darwin
| first = Charles
| year =1837
| title =Notebook B: (Transmutation of species)
| publisher=Darwin Online
| id =CUL-DAR121
| url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR121.-&pageseq=1
| accessdate =20 December 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last= Darwin
| first= Charles
| year= 1839
| title=Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Journal and remarks. 1832–1836.
| location= London
| publisher=Henry Colburn
| volume=III
| url= http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F10.3&viewtype=text&pageseq=1
| accessdate =24 October 2008|ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Darwin
| first = Charles
| author-link =
| year = 1842
| publication-date = 1909
| contribution =Pencil Sketch of 1842
| contribution-url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1556&pageseq=33
| editor-last = Darwin
| editor-first = Francis
| editor-link = Francis Darwin
| title =The foundations of The origin of species: Two essays written in 1842 and 1844.
| publisher=Cambridge University Press
| url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=1
| isbn = 0-548-79998-9
| ref = harv}}
* {{cite book
| last= Darwin
| first= Charles
| author-link=
| year= 1845
| title= Journal of researches into the natural history and geology of the countries visited during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the world, under the Command of Capt. Fitz Roy, R.N. 2d edition
| location= London
| publisher=John Murray
| url= http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F20&viewtype=text&pageseq=1
| accessdate =24 October 2008|ref=harv
}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Darwin
| first = Charles
| last2 = Wallace
| first2 = Alfred Russel
| author2-link = Alfred Russel Wallace
| year = 1858
| title =[[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection]]
| edition =
| series = Zoology 3
| publication-place =
| journal=Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London
| pages = 46–50
| doi = 10.1111/j.1096-3642.1858.tb02500.x|ref=harv
| volume = 3
| issue = 9}}
* {{cite book
| last = Darwin
| first = Charles
| year = 1859
| title =On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
| edition =1st
| publication-place = London
| publisher=John Murray
| url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=1
| accessdate =24 October 2008|ref=harv
| isbn = 1-4353-9386-4
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Darwin
| first = Charles
| author-link =
| year = 1868
| title = The variation of animals and plants under domestication
| publication-place = London
| publisher=John Murray
| url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F880.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=1
| accessdate =1 November 2008|ref=harv
| isbn = 1-4191-8660-4}}
* {{cite book
| last = Darwin
| first = Charles
| year = 1871
| title =The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex
| edition =1st
| publication-place = London
| publisher=John Murray
| url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_TheDescentofMan.html
| accessdate =24 October 2008|ref=harv
| isbn = 0-8014-2085-7
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Darwin
| first = Charles
| year = 1872
| title = The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
| edition = 6th
| location = London
| publisher=John Murray
| url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F391&viewtype=text&pageseq=1
| accessdate =1 November 2009 |ref=harv
| isbn = 1-4353-9386-4}}
* {{cite book
| last = Darwin
| first = Charles
| year = 1887
| editor-last = Darwin
| editor-first = Francis
| editor-link =Francis Darwin
| title = The life and letters of Charles Darwin, including an autobiographical chapter
| location = London
| publisher=John Murray
| url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_LifeandLettersandAutobiography.html
| accessdate =4 November 2008|ref=harv
| isbn = 0-404-08417-6}}
* {{cite book
| last = Darwin
| first = Charles
| year = 1958
| editor-last = Barlow
| editor-first = Nora
| editor-link =Nora Barlow
| title =The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809–1882. With the original omissions restored. Edited and with appendix and notes by his granddaughter Nora Barlow
| url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=1&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text
| location = London
| publisher=Collins
| accessdate =28 September 2013|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Darwin
| first = Charles
| year =2006
| contribution =Journal
| contribution-url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR158.1-76&pageseq=1
| editor-last =van Wyhe
| editor-first = John
| title =Darwin's personal 'Journal' (1809–1881)
| publisher=Darwin Online
| id =CUL-DAR158.1–76
| url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_JournalDAR158.html
| accessdate =20 December 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last = Desmond
| first = Adrian
| authorlink = Adrian Desmond
| last2 = Moore
| first2 = James
| author2-link = James Moore (biographer)
| year = 1991
| title = Darwin
| location = London
| publisher=Michael Joseph, Penguin Group
| isbn = 0-7181-3430-3|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last = Desmond
| first = Adrian
| author-link =
| last2 = Moore
| first2 = James
| author2-link = James Moore (biographer)
| last3=Browne
| first3=Janet
| year = 2004
| title = [[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]
| publication-place = Oxford, England
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| doi = 10.1093/ref:odnb/7176|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Dobzhansky
| first = Theodosius
| author-link = Theodosius Dobzhansky
| date = March 1973
| title = Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution
| journal = The American Biology Teacher
| volume = 35
| pages = 125–129
| ref = harv
| doi = 10.2307/4444260
| issue = 3
}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Eldredge
| first = Niles
| author-link = Niles Eldredge
| year = 2006
| title = Confessions of a Darwinist
| periodical = The Virginia Quarterly Review
| issue = Spring 2006
| pages = 32–53
| url = http://www.vqronline.org/articles/2006/spring/eldredge-confessions-darwinist/
| accessdate =4 November 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last = FitzRoy
| first = Robert
| author-link = Robert Fitzroy
| year = 1839
| title = Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, Volume II
| publication-place = London
| publisher=Henry Colburn
| url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F10.2&viewtype=text&pageseq=1
| accessdate =4 November 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last = Freeman
| first = R. B.
| author-link = R. B. Freeman
| year = 1977
| title = The Works of Charles Darwin: An Annotated Bibliographical Handlist
| publication-place = Folkestone
| publisher=Wm Dawson & Sons Ltd
| url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A1&viewtype=text&pageseq=1
| accessdate =4 November 2008|ref=harv
| isbn = 0-208-01658-9}}
*{{cite book
| last = Freeman
| first = R. B.
| title = Charles Darwin: A companion
| publisher = [[The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online]]
| year = 2007
| edition =2nd online
| url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A27b&viewtype=text&pageseq=114
| pp = 107, 109
| accessdate=25 December 2014|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last =Herbert
| first = Sandra
| year = 1980
| title =The red notebook of Charles Darwin
| journal=Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History)
| series =Historical Series
| issue = 7 (24 April)
| pages =1–164
| url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1583e&pageseq=1
| accessdate =11 January 2009|ref=harv
}}
* {{cite journal
| last =Herbert
| first = Sandra
| year = 1991
| title =Charles Darwin as a prospective geological author
| journal=British Journal for the History of Science
| issue = 24
| pages =159–192
| url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=1
| accessdate =24 October 2008|ref=harv
| doi =10.1017/S0007087400027060
| volume =24
}}
* {{cite book
| last= Keynes
| first= Richard
| author-link = Richard Keynes
| year= 2000
| title = Charles Darwin's zoology notes & specimen lists from H.M.S. Beagle.
| publisher=Cambridge University Press
| url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1840&viewtype=text&pageseq=1
| accessdate =22 November 2008|ref=harv
| isbn= 0-521-46569-9}}
* {{cite book
| last= Keynes
| first= Richard
| year= 2001
| title=Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary
| publisher=Cambridge University Press
| url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1925&viewtype=text&pageseq=1
| accessdate =24 October 2008|ref=harv
| isbn= 0-521-23503-0}}
* {{cite web
| last = Kotzin
| first = Daniel
| year = 2004
| title = Point-Counterpoint: Social Darwinism
| publisher=Columbia American History Online
| url =http://caho-test.cc.columbia.edu/pcp/14008.html
| accessdate =22 November 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Larson|first=Edward J.|authorlink=Edward Larson|title=Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory|publisher=Modern Library|year=2004|isbn=0-679-64288-9|ref=harv}}
* {{cite web
| last = Leff
| first = David
| year = 2000
| title =AboutDarwin.com
| url =http://www.aboutdarwin.com/index.html
| edition =2000–2008
| accessdate =30 December 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Leifchild
| date=19 November 1859
| title =Review of 'Origin'
| periodical =[[Athenaeum (magazine)|Athenaeum]]
| issue = 1673
| url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=image&itemID=CUL-DAR226.1.8&pageseq=1
| accessdate =22 November 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Miles
| first = Sara Joan
| year = 2001
| title =Charles Darwin and Asa Gray Discuss Teleology and Design
| journal=''[[Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith]]''
| volume = 53
| pages =196–201
| url =http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/2001/PSCF9-01Miles.html
| accessdate =22 November 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite news
| last = Moore
| first = James
| author-link =James Moore (biographer)
| year = 2005
| title = Darwin&nbsp;– A 'Devil's Chaplain'?
| publisher=American Public Media
| url =http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/moore-devilschaplain.pdf
|format=PDF| accessdate =22 November 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite news
| last = Moore
| first = James
| year = 2006
| title =Evolution and Wonder&nbsp;– Understanding Charles Darwin
| series =Speaking of Faith (Radio Program)
| publisher=American Public Media
| url =http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/transcript.shtml
| accessdate =22 November 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last = Owen
| first = Richard
| author-link = Richard Owen
| year = 1840
| editor-last = Darwin
| editor-first = C. R.
| title = Fossil Mammalia Part 1
| series =The zoology of the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle
| location = London
| publisher=Smith Elder and Co|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last = Paul
| first =Diane B.
| year = 2003
| contribution =Darwin, social Darwinism and eugenics
| editor-last = Hodge
| editor-first = Jonathan
| editor2-last = Radick
| editor2-first = Gregory
| title =The Cambridge Companion to Darwin
| publisher=Cambridge University Press
| pages =214–239
| isbn = 0-521-77730-5|ref=harv}}
* {{cite web
| last = Smith
| first = Charles H.
| title = Alfred Russel Wallace on Spiritualism, Man, and Evolution: An Analytical Essay
| year = 1999
| url =http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/essays/ARWPAMPH.htm
| accessdate =7 December 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Sulloway
| first =Frank J.
| author-link =Frank Sulloway
| year = 1982
| title =Darwin and His Finches: The Evolution of a Legend
| journal=Journal of the History of Biology
| volume = 15
| issue = 1
| pages =1–53
|format=PDF
| url =http://www.sulloway.org/Finches.pdf
| accessdate =9 December 2008
| doi = 10.1007/BF00132004|ref=harv}}
* {{cite web
| last = Sweet
| first = William
| title = Herbert Spencer
| publisher=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
| year = 2004
| url = http://www.iep.utm.edu/spencer/
| accessdate =16 December 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite web
| last = Wilkins
| first = John S.
| year = 1997
| title =Evolution and Philosophy: Does evolution make might right?
| publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]
| url = http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/evolphil/social.html
| accessdate =22 November 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last = Wilkins
| first = John S.
| year = 2008
| contribution =Darwin
| editor-last = Tucker
| editor-first = Aviezer
| title =A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography
| series =Blackwell Companions to Philosophy
| pages =405–415
| publication-place =Chichester
| publisher=Wiley-Blackwell
| isbn =1-4051-4908-6|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal
| last = van Wyhe
| first = John
| title = Mind the gap: Did Darwin avoid publishing his theory for many years?
| journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society
| volume = 61
| issue =2| pages = 177–205
| date = 27 March 2007
| doi = 10.1098/rsnr.2006.0171
| url= http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=1
| accessdate =7 February 2008|ref=harv
}}
* {{cite web
| last =van Wyhe
| first = John
| year = 2008
| title =Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch
| publisher=Darwin Online
| url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html
| accessdate =17 November 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last =van Wyhe
| first =John
| publication-date =1 September 2008
| year =2008b
| title =Darwin: The Story of the Man and His Theories of Evolution
| publication-place =London
| publisher=Andre Deutsch Ltd
| isbn =0-233-00251-0|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last =von Sydow
| first = Momme
| year = 2005
| contribution =Darwin&nbsp;– A Christian Undermining Christianity? On Self-Undermining Dynamics of Ideas Between Belief and Science
| contribution-url =http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20090326070105/http://www.psych.uni-goettingen.de/abt/1/sydow/von_Sydow_(2005)_Darwin_A_Christian_Undermining_Christianity.pdf
| editor-last = Knight
| editor-first =David M.
| editor2-last = Eddy
| editor2-first =Matthew D.
| title =Science and Beliefs: From Natural Philosophy to Natural Science, 1700–1900
| location = Burlington
| publisher=Ashgate
| pages =141–156
| isbn =0-7546-3996-7
| accessdate =16 December 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite web
| last = Yates
| first = Simon
| year = 2003
| title =The Lady Hope Story: A Widespread Falsehood
| publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]
| url =http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/hope.html
| accessdate =15 December 2006|ref=harv}}
{{refend}}
 
==Pranala luar==
{{sisterlinks|s=Author:Charles Robert Darwin|wikt=Darwinian|species_author=Charles Robert Darwin|m=no|mw=no|voy=no|b=General Biology/Gallery of Biologists/Charles Darwin|v=no}}
{{Library resources box
|onlinebooks=yes
|by=yes
|viaf= 27063124
|label=Charles Darwin
}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=Darwin,+Charles | name=Charles Darwin}}
* {{Internet Archive author |name=Charles Robert Darwin}}
* {{Librivox author |id=166}}
* [[The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online]]&nbsp;– [http://darwin-online.org.uk/ Darwin Online]; Darwin's publications, private papers and bibliography, supplementary works including biographies, obituaries and reviews
* [http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/ Darwin Correspondence Project] Full text and notes for complete correspondence to 1867, with summaries of all the rest
* [http://darwin.amnh.org/ Darwin Manuscript Project]
* {{NRA|P7461}}
* {{Cite EB1911| wstitle=Darwin, Charles Robert}}
* View books owned and annotated by [http://biodiversitylibrary.org/collection/darwinlibrary Charles Darwin] at the online Biodiversity Heritage Library.
* [http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/darwin_mss Digitised Darwin Manuscripts] in [[Cambridge Digital Library]]
 
{{Copley Medallists 1851-1900}}
{{Evolusi}}
{{Darwin}}
{{etologi}}
{{Zoologi}}
{{Authority control}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Darwin, Charles}}
[[Kategori:Charles Darwin| ]]
{{lifetime|1809|1882|Darwin, Charles}}
[[Kategori:Ilmuwan Inggris]]
[[Kategori:100 Tokoh menurut Michael H. Hart]]
Diperoleh dari "https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin"