Naskah Alkitab: Perbedaan antara revisi
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== Naskah Perjanjian Lama ==
[[File:Aleppo Codex (Deut).jpg|thumb|left|
[[Aleppo Codex]] (~ 920 M) dan [[Leningrad Codex]] (~ 1008 M) merupakan naskah tertua [[Perjanjian Lama]] atau [[Alkitab Ibrani]] atau [[Tanakh]] lengkap yang ditulis dalam [[bahasa Ibrani]]. Pada tahun 1947 di [[Qumran]] ditemukan Gulungan-[[gulungan Laut Mati]] dan setelah diteliti ternyata ditulis sekitar seribu tahun sebelum dua codex lengkap tersebut. Sebelum penemuan ini, naskah tertua [[Perjanjian Lama]] ditulis dalam bahasa Yunani, yaitu termuat di dalam [[Codex Vaticanus]] dan [[Codex Sinaiticus]] (yang juga memuat [[Perjanjian Baru]]). Dari sekitar 800 naskah yang ditemukan di Qumran, 220 dari Tanakh. Setiap kitab dalam Tanakh ditemukan potongannya, kecuali [[Kitab Ester]], tetapi tidak ada yang benar-benar utuh kecuali dua gulungan [[Kitab Yesaya]] dimana satu di antaranya berisi lengkap ([[Gulungan Besar Kitab Yesaya|Gulungan Besar Kitab Yesaya atau 1QIs<sup>a</sup>]]), dan yang lain sekitar 75% lengkap ([[1QIs-b|1QIs<sup>b</sup>]]). Naskah-naskah ini umumnya bertarikh antara 150 SM sampai 70 M.<ref>[[F. F. Bruce]]. [http://www.worldinvisible.com/library/kenyon/storyofbible/2ck11.htm "The Last Thirty Years"]. ''Story of the Bible''. ed. [[Frederic G. Kenyon]] Retrieved June 19, 2007</ref>
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=== Naskah Perjanjian Lama yang terlestarikan ===
Baris 19 ⟶ 17:
! width=""|Versi !!|Contoh !! width=""|Bahasa !! |Tarikh Penyusunan !! | Salinan tertua
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| [[Gulungan Laut Mati]]||[[Tanakh]] di [[Qumran]]|| [[bahasa Ibrani|Ibrani]], [[bahasa Aram|Aram]] dan [[bahasa Yunani|Yunani]] ([[Septuaginta]]) || ~ 150 SM – 70 M || ~ 150 SM – 70 M
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| colspan="5" style="background:#FFE4C4;"|
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|[[Septuaginta]]||[[Codex Vaticanus]], [[Codex Sinaiticus]] dan naskah papirus tua lain
||Greek||300–100
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Baris 56 ⟶ 54:
== Naskah Perjanjian Baru ==
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[[File:Codex Alexandrinus f41v - Luke.jpg|100px|thumb|right|Folio 41v from [[Codex Alexandrinus]] contains the [[Gospel of Luke]] with decorative tailpiece.]]▼
<blockquote>"In evaluating the significance of these statistics...one should consider, by way of contrast, the number of manuscripts which preserve the text of the ancient classics. Homer's ''[[Iliad]]''...is preserved by 457 papyri, 2 uncial manuscripts, and 188 minuscule manuscripts. Among the tragedians the witnesses to [[Euripides]] are the most abundant; his extant works are preserved in 54 papyri and 276 parchment manuscripts, almost all of the later dating from the Byzantine period...the time between the composition of the books of the New Testament and the earliest extant copies is relatively brief. Instead of the lapse of a millennium or more, as is the case of not a few classical authors, several papyrus manuscripts of portions of the New Testament are extant which were copies within a century or so after the composition of the original documents."<ref>''The Text Of The New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption & Restoration'', 1992, Third Enlarged Edition, [[Bruce Metzger]], p. 33-35</ref><ref>As a footnote to his comments, [[Bruce Metzger|Metzger]] also said, "Lest, however, the wrong impression be conveyed from the statistics given above regarding the total number of Greek manuscripts of the New Testament, it should be pointed out that most of the [[New Testament papyrus|papyri]] are relatively fragmentary and that only about fifty manuscripts (of which the [[Codex Sinaiticus]] is the only [[Uncial script|Uncial manuscript]]) contain the entire New Testament." ''The Text Of The New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption & Restoration'', 1992, Third Enlarged Edition, Bruce Metzger, p. 34</ref></blockquote>▼
▲[[File:Codex Alexandrinus f41v - Luke.jpg|100px|thumb|right|Folio 41v
Bagian-bagian [[Perjanjian Baru]] telah terlestarikan dalam jumlah naskah yang melebihi naskah kuno manapun. Berjumlah lebih dari 5.800 naskah [[bahasa Yunani]] lengkap atau terfragmentasi, 10.000 naskah [[bahasa Latin]] dan 9.300 naskah dalam bahasa kuno yang lain termasuk [[bahasa Suryani]], [[bahasa Slavik]], [[bahasa Gothik]], [[bahasa Ge'ez]] ([[Etiopia]]), [[bahasa Koptik]] dan [[bahasa Armenia]]. Tarikh pembuatan naskah ini diperkirakan berkisar dari ~125 M ([[Rylands Library Papyrus P52|naskah papirus John Rylands, '''P<sup>52</sup>''']]; fragmen tertua berisi salinan [[Injil Yohanes]]) sampai dengan munculnya percetakan di Jerman pada abad ke-15. Mayoritas terbesar naskah-naskah ini adalah dari abad ke-10.
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In reference to the textual evidence for the New Testament, [[Bruce M. Metzger]] wrote,
▲<blockquote>"In evaluating the significance of these statistics...one should consider, by way of contrast, the number of manuscripts which preserve the text of the ancient classics. Homer's ''[[Iliad]]''...is preserved by 457 papyri, 2 uncial manuscripts, and 188 minuscule manuscripts. Among the tragedians the witnesses to [[Euripides]] are the most abundant; his extant works are preserved in 54 papyri and 276 parchment manuscripts, almost all of the later dating from the Byzantine period...the time between the composition of the books of the New Testament and the earliest extant copies is relatively brief. Instead of the lapse of a millennium or more, as is the case of not a few classical authors, several papyrus manuscripts of portions of the New Testament are extant which were copies within a century or so after the composition of the original documents."<ref>''The Text Of The New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption & Restoration'', 1992, Third Enlarged Edition, [[Bruce Metzger]], p. 33-35</ref><ref>As a footnote to his comments, [[Bruce Metzger|Metzger]] also said, "Lest, however, the wrong impression be conveyed from the statistics given above regarding the total number of Greek manuscripts of the New Testament, it should be pointed out that most of the [[New Testament papyrus|papyri]] are relatively fragmentary and that only about fifty manuscripts (of which the [[Codex Sinaiticus]] is the only [[Uncial script|Uncial manuscript]]) contain the entire New Testament." ''The Text Of The New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption & Restoration'', 1992, Third Enlarged Edition, Bruce Metzger, p. 34</ref></blockquote>
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Hampir setiap tahun ditemukan sejumlah naskah tulisan tangan Perjanjian Baru dalam format bahasa Yunani asli. Penemuan substansial adalah tahun 2008, ketika 47 naskah kuno ditemukan di [[Albania]]; paling sedikit 17 di antaranya tidak dikenal oleh pakar Barat.<ref>Michelle A Vu, [http://www.christiantoday.com/article/nt.scholar.on.discovery.of.giant.trove.of.bible.manuscripts/18204.htm "NT scholar on discovery of giant trove of Bible manuscripts,"] ''[[Christianity Today]]'', 21 April 2008</ref> Ketika membandingkan satu naskah dengan yang lain, dengan perkecualian fragmen-fragmen yang kecil, tidak ada dua salinan yang 100% seluruhnya sama. Paling sedikit diperkirakan ada 400.000 variasi di antara naskah-naskah ini (dari abad ke-2 sampai ke-15) yang lebih dari jumlah kata dalam Perjanjian Baru. Variasi=variasi ini tidaklah signifikan karena merupakan perbandingan antara bahasa. Yang terpenting adalah variasi di dalam satu bahasa sendiri, dan ini jumlahnya jauh lebih sedikit. Kebanyakan berupa kesalahan penyalinan yang tidak disengaja oleh para jurutulis dan dengan mudah dapat diidentifkasi, misalnya: "haplografi" (penghilangan kata), "homoioteleuton" (baris disalin berulang), salah ejaan, perubahan urutan kata. Sejumlah variasi nampaknya disengaja, dan sering membuat lebih sulit ditentukan apakah perubahan ini merupakan koreksi dari contoh yang lebih benar, atau harmonisasi antara bacaan-bacaan berbeda, atau dimotivasi oleh suatu ideologi.<ref>Ehrman 2004, pp.480f</ref> Untuk itulah diterapkan [[palaeografi]], yaitu ilmu yang mempelajari tulisan kuno, dan kritisisme tekstual, yaitu studi naskah-naskah untuk merekonstruksi kemungkinan teks asli.
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The difficulty is in where the manuscripts are coming from. Often, especially in monasteries, a manuscript cache is little more than a former manuscript recycling center where imperfect and incomplete copies of manuscripts were stored while the monastery or scriptorium decided what to do with them.<ref name="Ehrman 2005">Ehrman 2005</ref> There were several options. The first was to simply "wash" the manuscript and reuse it. This was very common in the ancient world and even up into the [[Middle Ages]]; such reused manuscripts are called [[palimpsest]]s. The most famous palimpsest is probably the [[Archimedes Palimpsest]]. If this was not done within a short period of time after the papyri was made, then washing it was less likely since the papyri might deteriorate and thus be unusable. When washing was no longer an option, the second choice was burning (since they contained the words of Christ, they were thought to have had a level of sanctity).<ref name="Ehrman 2005"/> Burning them was considered more reverent than simply throwing them into the nearby garbage pit, although that was not unheard of as in the case of [[Oxyrhynchus 840]]). The third option was simply to leave them in what has become known as a manuscript gravesite. When scholars come across manuscript caches, for example that at [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]] in the [[Sinai]] (source of the [[Codex Sinaiticus]]), or Saint Sabbas Monastery outside [[Bethlehem]], they are not finding libraries, but storehouses of rejected texts<ref name="Ehrman 2005">Ehrman 2005</ref> (sometimes kept in boxes or back shelves in libraries due to space constraints). These texts were unacceptable because of their scribal errors and contain corrections inside the lines<ref>http://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/</ref> possibly evidence that monastery scribes were comparing it to what must have been a master text. In addition, texts thought to be complete and correct but which had deteriorated due to heavy usage and/or had missing [[wikt:folio|folios]] would also be placed in these [[Treasure trove|caches]]. Once in a cache, [[insects]] and [[humidity]] would often contribute to the continued deterioration of the documents.<ref name="Ehrman 2005" />
Complete and correctly copied texts would usually be immediately placed in use and thus usually would wear out fairly quickly which would require repeated recopying. Further, because manuscript copying was highly costly when it required a scribe's attention for extended periods, a [[manuscript]] might only be made when commissioned, in which case the size of the [[parchment]], [[writing system|script]] used, any illustrations (thus raising the effective cost), whether it was one book or a collection of several, etc. would be determined by the one commissioning the work. The idea of stocking extra copies would probably have been considered at best wasteful and unnecessary since the form and presentation of a [[manuscript]] were more often than not customized to the aesthetic tastes of the buyer. This is part of the reason why scholars are more likely to find incomplete, and at times conflicting, segments of manuscripts rather than complete and largely consistent works.<ref name="Ehrman 2005" />
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Sumber: Aland.<ref>Aland, p 81</ref>
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Baris 292 ⟶ 294:
Of the 476 non-Christian manuscripts dated to the 2nd century, 97% of the manuscripts are in the form of [[scrolls]]; however, the 8 Christian manuscripts are [[codex|codices]]. In fact, most New Testament manuscripts are codices. The adaptation of the codex form in non-Christian text did not become dominant until the 4th and 5th centuries, showing a preference for that form amongst early Christians.<ref>[http://www.earlham.edu/~seidti/iam/codex.html Seid]</ref> The considerable length of some New Testament books (such as the [[Pauline epistles]]), and the New Testament itself, was not suited to the limited space available on a single scroll; in contrast a codex could be expanded to hundreds of pages.
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[[Image:BookOfDurrowBeginMarkGospel.jpg|thumb|left|
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===Script and other features===
Baris 305 ⟶ 307:
Manuscripts became more ornate over the centuries, which developed into a rich [[illuminated manuscript]] tradition, including the famous Irish [[Gospel Book]]s, the [[Book of Kells]] and the [[Book of Durrow]].
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[[File:SinopeGospelsFolio29rChristHealingBlind.jpg|thumb|right|200px|
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[[Desiderius Erasmus]] compiled the first printed edition of the Greek New Testament in 1516, basing his work on several manuscripts because he did not have a single complete work and because each manuscript had small errors. In the 18th century, [[Johann Jakob Wettstein]] was one of the first biblical scholars to start cataloging biblical manuscripts. He divided the manuscripts based on the writing used ([[uncial]], minuscule) or format ([[Lectionary|lectionaries]]) and based on content ([[Gospel]]s, [[Pauline epistles|Pauline letters]], [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] + [[General epistles]], and [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]]). He assigned the uncials letters and minuscules and lectionaries numbers for each grouping of content, which resulted in manuscripts being assigned the same letter or number.<ref>Aland 1995, p. 72</ref>
Baris 323 ⟶ 327:
The majority of New Testament textual criticism deals with Greek manuscripts because scholars believe the original books of the New Testament were written in Greek. However, the text of the New Testament is also found, both translated in manuscripts of many different languages (called ''versions''), and quoted in manuscripts of the writings of the [[Church Fathers]]. In the [[critical apparatus]] of the [[Novum Testamentum Graece]], a series of abbreviations and prefixes designate different language versions (it for Old Latin, lowercase letters for individual Old Latin manuscripts, vg for [[Vulgate]], lat for Latin, sy<sup>s</sup> for [[Sinaitic Palimpsest]], sy<sup>c</sup> for [[Curetonian Gospels]], sy<sup>p</sup> for the [[Peshitta]], co for Coptic, ac for Akhmimic, bo for Bohairic, sa for Sahidic, arm for Armenian, geo for Georgian, got for Gothic, aeth for Ethiopic, and slav for Old Church Slavonic).<ref>NA<sup>27</sup> 1996, pp. 64*-76*</ref>
=== Perkiraan Tarikh Pembuatan Naskah Perjanjian Baru ===
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[[Image:Escribano.jpg|thumb|210px|right|
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The New Testament books appear to have been completed within the 1st century. However, the original manuscripts of the New Testament books do not survive today. The [[autograph]]s were lost or destroyed a long time ago. What survives are copies of the original. Generally speaking, these copies were made centuries after the originals from other copies rather than from the autograph. [[Paleography]], a science of dating manuscripts by typological analysis of their scripts, is the most precise and objective means known for determining the age of a manuscript. Script groups belong typologically to their generation; and changes can be noted with great accuracy over relatively short periods of time. Dating of manuscript material by a [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon dating test]] requires that a small part of the material be destroyed in the process; it is less accurate than dating from paleography.<ref>[http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-73398/biblical-literature#597996.hook Britannica Online: Types of manuscript errors]</ref> Both radiocarbon and paleographical dating only give a range of possible dates, and it's still debated just how narrow this range might be. Dates established by radiocarbon dating can present a range of 10 to over 100 years. Similarly, dates established by paleography can present a range of 25 to over 125 years.<ref>Egypt on the Pentateuch's Ideological Map By F. V. Greifenhagen</ref>
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Baris 593 ⟶ 599:
=== Daftar ===
* [[
* [[
* [[Daftar Minuscule Perjanjian Baru]]
* [[Daftar Lektionari Perjanjian Baru]]
* [[
==
<gallery>
Image:Deadseascrolls.jpg|
Image:P52 recto.jpg|[[
Image:P46.jpg|[[Papyrus 46|<math>\mathfrak{P}</math><sup>46</sup>]]:
Image:P. Chester Beatty I, folio 13-14, recto.jpg|[[
Image:Fragmento filemon.jpg|[[
Image:Papyrus 37 - verso.jpg|[[
Image:Papyrus1.JPG|[[
Image:Sinaiticus text.jpg|[[Codex Sinaiticus]] (
Image:Codex Vaticanus B, 2Thess. 3,11-18, Hebr. 1,1-2,2.jpg|[[Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209]]
Image:P. Chester Beatty VI fragments, recto.jpg|[[Chester Beatty Papyri|P. Chester Beatty]]'' VI
Image:Uncial 0308 POxy 4500 recto.jpg| [[Uncial 0308]]
Image:Codex Argenteus.jpg|
Image:CodxAmiatinusFolio5rEzra.jpg|folio 5r
</gallery>
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