Naskah Alkitab: Perbedaan antara revisi

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== Naskah Perjanjian Lama ==
 
[[File:Aleppo Codex (Deut).jpg|thumb|left|ASebuah pagehalaman from thedari [[Aleppo Codex]], Deuteronomy[[Kitab Ulangan]].]]
[[Aleppo Codex]] (~ 920 M) dan [[Leningrad Codex]] (~ 1008 M) merupakan naskah tertua [[Perjanjian Lama]] atau [[Alkitab Ibrani]] atau [[Tanakh]] lengkap yang ditulis dalam [[bahasa Ibrani]]. Pada tahun 1947 di [[Qumran]] ditemukan Gulungan-[[gulungan Laut Mati]] dan setelah diteliti ternyata ditulis sekitar seribu tahun sebelum dua codex lengkap tersebut. Sebelum penemuan ini, naskah tertua [[Perjanjian Lama]] ditulis dalam bahasa Yunani, yaitu termuat di dalam [[Codex Vaticanus]] dan [[Codex Sinaiticus]] (yang juga memuat [[Perjanjian Baru]]). Dari sekitar 800 naskah yang ditemukan di Qumran, 220 dari Tanakh. Setiap kitab dalam Tanakh ditemukan potongannya, kecuali [[Kitab Ester]], tetapi tidak ada yang benar-benar utuh kecuali dua gulungan [[Kitab Yesaya]] dimana satu di antaranya berisi lengkap ([[Gulungan Besar Kitab Yesaya|Gulungan Besar Kitab Yesaya atau 1QIs<sup>a</sup>]]), dan yang lain sekitar 75% lengkap ([[1QIs-b|1QIs<sup>b</sup>]]). Naskah-naskah ini umumnya bertarikh antara 150 SM sampai 70 M.<ref>[[F. F. Bruce]]. [http://www.worldinvisible.com/library/kenyon/storyofbible/2ck11.htm "The Last Thirty Years"]. ''Story of the Bible''. ed. [[Frederic G. Kenyon]] Retrieved June 19, 2007</ref>
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Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh) manuscripts
The [[Aleppo Codex]] (''c.'' 920 CE) and [[Leningrad Codex]] (''c.'' 1008 CE) were the oldest Hebrew language manuscripts of the [[Tanakh]]. The 1947 find at [[Qumran]] of the [[Dead Sea scrolls]] pushed the manuscript history of the Tanakh back a millennium from the two earliest complete codices. Before this discovery, the earliest extant manuscripts of the [[Old Testament]] were in Greek in manuscripts such as [[Codex Vaticanus]] and [[Codex Sinaiticus]]. Out of the roughly 800 manuscripts found at Qumran, 220 are from the Tanakh. Every book of the Tanakh is represented except for the [[Book of Esther]]; however, most are fragmentary. Notably, there are two [[scroll]]s of the [[Book of Isaiah]], one complete ([[1QIs-a|1QIs<sup>a</sup>]]), and one around 75% complete ([[1QIs-b|1QIs<sup>b</sup>]]). These manuscripts generally date between 150 BCE to 70 CE.<ref>[[F. F. Bruce]]. [http://www.worldinvisible.com/library/kenyon/storyofbible/2ck11.htm "The Last Thirty Years"]. ''Story of the Bible''. ed. [[Frederic G. Kenyon]] Retrieved June 19, 2007</ref>
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=== Naskah Perjanjian Lama yang terlestarikan ===
 
Baris 19 ⟶ 17:
! width=""|Versi !!|Contoh !! width=""|Bahasa !! |Tarikh Penyusunan !! | Salinan tertua
|-
| [[Gulungan Laut Mati]]||[[Tanakh]] di [[Qumran]]|| [[bahasa Ibrani|Ibrani]], [[bahasa Aram|Aram]] dan [[bahasa Yunani|Yunani]] ([[Septuaginta]]) || ~ 150 SM – 70 M || ~ 150 SM – 70 M
|-
| colspan="5" style="background:#FFE4C4;"|
|-
|[[Septuaginta]]||[[Codex Vaticanus]], [[Codex Sinaiticus]] dan naskah papirus tua lain
||Greek||300–100 BCESM || 2ndabad centuryke-2 BCESM (fragmentsfragmen)<br/>4thabad century CEke-4 (completelengkap)
|-
| colspan="5" style="background:#FFE4C4;"|
Baris 56 ⟶ 54:
 
== Naskah Perjanjian Baru ==
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[[File:Codex Alexandrinus f41v - Luke.jpg|100px|thumb|right|Folio 41v from [[Codex Alexandrinus]] contains the [[Gospel of Luke]] with decorative tailpiece.]]
Parts of the [[New Testament]] have been preserved in more manuscripts than any other ancient work, having over 5,800 complete or fragmented [[Greek language|Greek]] manuscripts, 10,000 [[Latin]] manuscripts and 9,300 manuscripts in various other ancient languages including [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], [[Gothic language|Gothic]], [[Ge'ez language|Ethiopic]], [[Coptic language|Coptic]] and [[Armenian language|Armenian]]. The dates of these manuscripts range from c. 125 (the [[Rylands Library Papyrus P52|John Rylands manuscript, '''P<sup>52</sup>''']]; oldest copy of John fragments) to the introduction of printing in Germany in the 15th century. The vast majority of these manuscripts date after the 10th century. Although there are more manuscripts that preserve the New Testament than there are for any other ancient writing, the exact form of the text preserved in these later, numerous manuscripts may not be identical to the form of the text as it existed in antiquity. Textual scholar [[Bart Ehrman]] writes: "It is true, of course, that the New Testament is abundantly attested in the manuscripts produced through the ages, but most of these manuscripts are many centuries removed from the originals, and none of them perfectly accurate. They all contain mistakes - altogether many thousands of mistakes. It is not an easy task to reconstruct the original words of the New Testament...."<ref>''The New Testament: An Historical Introduction To The Early Christian Writings'', Bart Ehrman p. 449</ref> In reference to the textual evidence for the New Testament, [[Bruce M. Metzger]] wrote,
<blockquote>"In evaluating the significance of these statistics...one should consider, by way of contrast, the number of manuscripts which preserve the text of the ancient classics. Homer's ''[[Iliad]]''...is preserved by 457 papyri, 2 uncial manuscripts, and 188 minuscule manuscripts. Among the tragedians the witnesses to [[Euripides]] are the most abundant; his extant works are preserved in 54 papyri and 276 parchment manuscripts, almost all of the later dating from the Byzantine period...the time between the composition of the books of the New Testament and the earliest extant copies is relatively brief. Instead of the lapse of a millennium or more, as is the case of not a few classical authors, several papyrus manuscripts of portions of the New Testament are extant which were copies within a century or so after the composition of the original documents."<ref>''The Text Of The New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption & Restoration'', 1992, Third Enlarged Edition, [[Bruce Metzger]], p. 33-35</ref><ref>As a footnote to his comments, [[Bruce Metzger|Metzger]] also said, "Lest, however, the wrong impression be conveyed from the statistics given above regarding the total number of Greek manuscripts of the New Testament, it should be pointed out that most of the [[New Testament papyrus|papyri]] are relatively fragmentary and that only about fifty manuscripts (of which the [[Codex Sinaiticus]] is the only [[Uncial script|Uncial manuscript]]) contain the entire New Testament." ''The Text Of The New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption & Restoration'', 1992, Third Enlarged Edition, Bruce Metzger, p. 34</ref></blockquote>
 
[[File:Codex Alexandrinus f41v - Luke.jpg|100px|thumb|right|Folio 41v fromdari [[Codex Alexandrinus]] contains thememuat [[GospelInjil of LukeLukas]] withdengan bagian penutup berhiasan (''decorative tailpiece'').]]
Every year, several New Testament manuscripts handwritten in the original Greek format are discovered. The latest substantial find was in 2008, when 47 new manuscripts were discovered in [[Albania]]; at least 17 of them unknown to Western scholars.<ref>Michelle A Vu, [http://www.christiantoday.com/article/nt.scholar.on.discovery.of.giant.trove.of.bible.manuscripts/18204.htm "NT scholar on discovery of giant trove of Bible manuscripts,"] ''[[Christianity Today]]'', April 21, 2008</ref> When comparing one manuscript to another, with the exception of the smallest fragments, no two copies agree completely throughout. There has been an estimate of 400,000 variations among all these manuscripts (from the 2nd to 15th century) which is more than there are words in the New Testament. This is less significant than may appear since it is a comparison across linguistic boundaries. More important estimates focus on comparing texts within languages. Those variations are considerably fewer. The vast majority of these are accidental errors made by [[scribe]]s, and are easily identified as such: [[haplography|an omitted word]], [[homoioteleuton|a duplicate line]], a misspelling, a rearrangement of words. Some variations involve apparently intentional changes, which often make more difficult a determination of whether they were corrections from better [[Wiktionary:exemplar|exemplars]], [[harmonization]]s between readings, or ideologically motivated.<ref>Ehrman 2004, pp.480f</ref> [[Palaeography]] is the study of ancient writing, and [[textual criticism]] is the study of manuscripts in order to reconstruct a probable original text.
 
Bagian-bagian [[Perjanjian Baru]] telah terlestarikan dalam jumlah naskah yang melebihi naskah kuno manapun. Berjumlah lebih dari 5.800 naskah [[bahasa Yunani]] lengkap atau terfragmentasi, 10.000 naskah [[bahasa Latin]] dan 9.300 naskah dalam bahasa kuno yang lain termasuk [[bahasa Suryani]], [[bahasa Slavik]], [[bahasa Gothik]], [[bahasa Ge'ez]] ([[Etiopia]]), [[bahasa Koptik]] dan [[bahasa Armenia]]. Tarikh pembuatan naskah ini diperkirakan berkisar dari ~125 M ([[Rylands Library Papyrus P52|naskah papirus John Rylands, '''P<sup>52</sup>''']]; fragmen tertua berisi salinan [[Injil Yohanes]]) sampai dengan munculnya percetakan di Jerman pada abad ke-15. Mayoritas terbesar naskah-naskah ini adalah dari abad ke-10.
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In reference to the textual evidence for the New Testament, [[Bruce M. Metzger]] wrote,
<blockquote>"In evaluating the significance of these statistics...one should consider, by way of contrast, the number of manuscripts which preserve the text of the ancient classics. Homer's ''[[Iliad]]''...is preserved by 457 papyri, 2 uncial manuscripts, and 188 minuscule manuscripts. Among the tragedians the witnesses to [[Euripides]] are the most abundant; his extant works are preserved in 54 papyri and 276 parchment manuscripts, almost all of the later dating from the Byzantine period...the time between the composition of the books of the New Testament and the earliest extant copies is relatively brief. Instead of the lapse of a millennium or more, as is the case of not a few classical authors, several papyrus manuscripts of portions of the New Testament are extant which were copies within a century or so after the composition of the original documents."<ref>''The Text Of The New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption & Restoration'', 1992, Third Enlarged Edition, [[Bruce Metzger]], p. 33-35</ref><ref>As a footnote to his comments, [[Bruce Metzger|Metzger]] also said, "Lest, however, the wrong impression be conveyed from the statistics given above regarding the total number of Greek manuscripts of the New Testament, it should be pointed out that most of the [[New Testament papyrus|papyri]] are relatively fragmentary and that only about fifty manuscripts (of which the [[Codex Sinaiticus]] is the only [[Uncial script|Uncial manuscript]]) contain the entire New Testament." ''The Text Of The New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption & Restoration'', 1992, Third Enlarged Edition, Bruce Metzger, p. 34</ref></blockquote>
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Hampir setiap tahun ditemukan sejumlah naskah tulisan tangan Perjanjian Baru dalam format bahasa Yunani asli. Penemuan substansial adalah tahun 2008, ketika 47 naskah kuno ditemukan di [[Albania]]; paling sedikit 17 di antaranya tidak dikenal oleh pakar Barat.<ref>Michelle A Vu, [http://www.christiantoday.com/article/nt.scholar.on.discovery.of.giant.trove.of.bible.manuscripts/18204.htm "NT scholar on discovery of giant trove of Bible manuscripts,"] ''[[Christianity Today]]'', 21 April 2008</ref> Ketika membandingkan satu naskah dengan yang lain, dengan perkecualian fragmen-fragmen yang kecil, tidak ada dua salinan yang 100% seluruhnya sama. Paling sedikit diperkirakan ada 400.000 variasi di antara naskah-naskah ini (dari abad ke-2 sampai ke-15) yang lebih dari jumlah kata dalam Perjanjian Baru. Variasi=variasi ini tidaklah signifikan karena merupakan perbandingan antara bahasa. Yang terpenting adalah variasi di dalam satu bahasa sendiri, dan ini jumlahnya jauh lebih sedikit. Kebanyakan berupa kesalahan penyalinan yang tidak disengaja oleh para jurutulis dan dengan mudah dapat diidentifkasi, misalnya: "haplografi" (penghilangan kata), "homoioteleuton" (baris disalin berulang), salah ejaan, perubahan urutan kata. Sejumlah variasi nampaknya disengaja, dan sering membuat lebih sulit ditentukan apakah perubahan ini merupakan koreksi dari contoh yang lebih benar, atau harmonisasi antara bacaan-bacaan berbeda, atau dimotivasi oleh suatu ideologi.<ref>Ehrman 2004, pp.480f</ref> Untuk itulah diterapkan [[palaeografi]], yaitu ilmu yang mempelajari tulisan kuno, dan kritisisme tekstual, yaitu studi naskah-naskah untuk merekonstruksi kemungkinan teks asli.
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The difficulty is in where the manuscripts are coming from. Often, especially in monasteries, a manuscript cache is little more than a former manuscript recycling center where imperfect and incomplete copies of manuscripts were stored while the monastery or scriptorium decided what to do with them.<ref name="Ehrman 2005">Ehrman 2005</ref> There were several options. The first was to simply "wash" the manuscript and reuse it. This was very common in the ancient world and even up into the [[Middle Ages]]; such reused manuscripts are called [[palimpsest]]s. The most famous palimpsest is probably the [[Archimedes Palimpsest]]. If this was not done within a short period of time after the papyri was made, then washing it was less likely since the papyri might deteriorate and thus be unusable. When washing was no longer an option, the second choice was burning (since they contained the words of Christ, they were thought to have had a level of sanctity).<ref name="Ehrman 2005"/> Burning them was considered more reverent than simply throwing them into the nearby garbage pit, although that was not unheard of as in the case of [[Oxyrhynchus 840]]). The third option was simply to leave them in what has become known as a manuscript gravesite. When scholars come across manuscript caches, for example that at [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]] in the [[Sinai]] (source of the [[Codex Sinaiticus]]), or Saint Sabbas Monastery outside [[Bethlehem]], they are not finding libraries, but storehouses of rejected texts<ref name="Ehrman 2005">Ehrman 2005</ref> (sometimes kept in boxes or back shelves in libraries due to space constraints). These texts were unacceptable because of their scribal errors and contain corrections inside the lines<ref>http://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/</ref> possibly evidence that monastery scribes were comparing it to what must have been a master text. In addition, texts thought to be complete and correct but which had deteriorated due to heavy usage and/or had missing [[wikt:folio|folios]] would also be placed in these [[Treasure trove|caches]]. Once in a cache, [[insects]] and [[humidity]] would often contribute to the continued deterioration of the documents.<ref name="Ehrman 2005" />
 
Complete and correctly copied texts would usually be immediately placed in use and thus usually would wear out fairly quickly which would require repeated recopying. Further, because manuscript copying was highly costly when it required a scribe's attention for extended periods, a [[manuscript]] might only be made when commissioned, in which case the size of the [[parchment]], [[writing system|script]] used, any illustrations (thus raising the effective cost), whether it was one book or a collection of several, etc. would be determined by the one commissioning the work. The idea of stocking extra copies would probably have been considered at best wasteful and unnecessary since the form and presentation of a [[manuscript]] were more often than not customized to the aesthetic tastes of the buyer. This is part of the reason why scholars are more likely to find incomplete, and at times conflicting, segments of manuscripts rather than complete and largely consistent works.<ref name="Ehrman 2005" />
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'''=== Distribusi naskah Perjanjian Baru bahasa Yunani menurut abad'''<ref>Aland, p 81</ref>===
Sumber: Aland.<ref>Aland, p 81</ref>
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Baris 292 ⟶ 294:
 
Of the 476 non-Christian manuscripts dated to the 2nd century, 97% of the manuscripts are in the form of [[scrolls]]; however, the 8 Christian manuscripts are [[codex|codices]]. In fact, most New Testament manuscripts are codices. The adaptation of the codex form in non-Christian text did not become dominant until the 4th and 5th centuries, showing a preference for that form amongst early Christians.<ref>[http://www.earlham.edu/~seidti/iam/codex.html Seid]</ref> The considerable length of some New Testament books (such as the [[Pauline epistles]]), and the New Testament itself, was not suited to the limited space available on a single scroll; in contrast a codex could be expanded to hundreds of pages.
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[[Image:BookOfDurrowBeginMarkGospel.jpg|thumb|left|The beginning of thePermulaan [[GospelInjil of MarkMarkus]] from thedari [[Book ofKitab Durrow]].]]
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===Script and other features===
 
Baris 305 ⟶ 307:
Manuscripts became more ornate over the centuries, which developed into a rich [[illuminated manuscript]] tradition, including the famous Irish [[Gospel Book]]s, the [[Book of Kells]] and the [[Book of Durrow]].
 
===Cataloging Pembuatan Katalog ===
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[[File:SinopeGospelsFolio29rChristHealingBlind.jpg|thumb|right|200px|ASebuah pagehalaman from thedari [[Sinope Gospels]]. The miniatureGambar atminiatur thedi bottombawah showsmenunjukkan [[JesusYesus]] healingmenyembuhkan theorang blindbuta.]]
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[[Desiderius Erasmus]] compiled the first printed edition of the Greek New Testament in 1516, basing his work on several manuscripts because he did not have a single complete work and because each manuscript had small errors. In the 18th century, [[Johann Jakob Wettstein]] was one of the first biblical scholars to start cataloging biblical manuscripts. He divided the manuscripts based on the writing used ([[uncial]], minuscule) or format ([[Lectionary|lectionaries]]) and based on content ([[Gospel]]s, [[Pauline epistles|Pauline letters]], [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] + [[General epistles]], and [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]]). He assigned the uncials letters and minuscules and lectionaries numbers for each grouping of content, which resulted in manuscripts being assigned the same letter or number.<ref>Aland 1995, p. 72</ref>
 
Baris 323 ⟶ 327:
The majority of New Testament textual criticism deals with Greek manuscripts because scholars believe the original books of the New Testament were written in Greek. However, the text of the New Testament is also found, both translated in manuscripts of many different languages (called ''versions''), and quoted in manuscripts of the writings of the [[Church Fathers]]. In the [[critical apparatus]] of the [[Novum Testamentum Graece]], a series of abbreviations and prefixes designate different language versions (it for Old Latin, lowercase letters for individual Old Latin manuscripts, vg for [[Vulgate]], lat for Latin, sy<sup>s</sup> for [[Sinaitic Palimpsest]], sy<sup>c</sup> for [[Curetonian Gospels]], sy<sup>p</sup> for the [[Peshitta]], co for Coptic, ac for Akhmimic, bo for Bohairic, sa for Sahidic, arm for Armenian, geo for Georgian, got for Gothic, aeth for Ethiopic, and slav for Old Church Slavonic).<ref>NA<sup>27</sup> 1996, pp. 64*-76*</ref>
 
=== Perkiraan Tarikh Pembuatan Naskah Perjanjian Baru ===
=== Dating the New Testament manuscripts ===
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[[Image:Escribano.jpg|thumb|210px|right|An illustrationIllustration of a European [[scribe]] at work]]
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The New Testament books appear to have been completed within the 1st century. However, the original manuscripts of the New Testament books do not survive today. The [[autograph]]s were lost or destroyed a long time ago. What survives are copies of the original. Generally speaking, these copies were made centuries after the originals from other copies rather than from the autograph. [[Paleography]], a science of dating manuscripts by typological analysis of their scripts, is the most precise and objective means known for determining the age of a manuscript. Script groups belong typologically to their generation; and changes can be noted with great accuracy over relatively short periods of time. Dating of manuscript material by a [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon dating test]] requires that a small part of the material be destroyed in the process; it is less accurate than dating from paleography.<ref>[http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-73398/biblical-literature#597996.hook Britannica Online: Types of manuscript errors]</ref> Both radiocarbon and paleographical dating only give a range of possible dates, and it's still debated just how narrow this range might be. Dates established by radiocarbon dating can present a range of 10 to over 100 years. Similarly, dates established by paleography can present a range of 25 to over 125 years.<ref>Egypt on the Pentateuch's Ideological Map By F. V. Greifenhagen</ref>
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Baris 593 ⟶ 599:
=== Daftar ===
 
* [[List ofDaftar NewPapirus TestamentPerjanjian papyriBaru]]
* [[List ofDaftar NewUncial TestamentPerjanjian uncialsBaru]]
* [[Daftar Minuscule Perjanjian Baru]]
*[[List of New Testament minuscules]]
* [[Daftar Lektionari Perjanjian Baru]]
*[[List of New Testament lectionaries]]
* [[ListDaftar ofPerjanjian NewBaru Testamentbahasa Latin manuscripts]]
 
== GalleryFoto ==
<gallery>
Image:Deadseascrolls.jpg|Fragments of theFragmen [[DeadGulungan SeaLaut scrollsMati]] ondipertontonkan display at thedi Archeological Museum, Amman, [[Yordania]]
Image:P52 recto.jpg|[[PapyrusPapirus 52|<math>\mathfrak{P}</math><sup>52</sup>]]: isfragmen thetertua oldestsaat knownini manuscriptdi fragmentantara ofnaskah thePerjanjian New TestamentBaru.
Image:P46.jpg|[[Papyrus 46|<math>\mathfrak{P}</math><sup>46</sup>]]: is the earliestnaskah (nearlyhampir) completelengkap manuscripttertua ofyang thememuat [[Pauline epistles|Epistles written by Paul in the newSurat-surat testamentPaulus]].
Image:P. Chester Beatty I, folio 13-14, recto.jpg|[[PapyrusPapirus 45|<math>\mathfrak{P}</math><sup>45</sup>]] is a manuscript ofmemuat [[GospelInjil]]s anddan [[ActsKisah ofPara the Apostles|ActsRasul]]. ItMerupakan containsnaskah thetertua earliestyang known text ofmemuat [[GospelInjil of Mark|MarkMarkus]]. Scholars find it hard, tomeksipun readsukar itdibaca becausekarena ofkondisinya itsyang fragmentaryterfragmentasi stateberat.
Image:Fragmento filemon.jpg|[[PapyrusPapirus 87|<math>\mathfrak{P}</math><sup>87</sup>]]: isnaskah thetertua earliestyang known manuscript ofmemuat [[EpistleSurat to Philemon|PhilemonFilemon]].
Image:Papyrus 37 - verso.jpg|[[PapyrusPapirus 37|<math>\mathfrak{P}</math><sup>37</sup>]]
Image:Papyrus1.JPG|[[PapyrusPapirus 1|<math>\mathfrak{P}</math><sup>1</sup>]], naskah tertua yang memuat [[Injil Matius]]
Image:Sinaiticus text.jpg|[[Codex Sinaiticus]] (''c''.~ 350) containsmemuat thesalinan oldestlengkap completePerjanjian copy of the New TestamentBaru, as welldan asPerjanjian theLama Greekdalam Oldbahasa TestamentYunani, knownyang asdikenal thesebagai [[SeptuagintSeptuaginta]]
Image:Codex Vaticanus B, 2Thess. 3,11-18, Hebr. 1,1-2,2.jpg|[[Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209]]
Image:P. Chester Beatty VI fragments, recto.jpg|[[Chester Beatty Papyri|P. Chester Beatty]]'' VI showingmenunjukkan portions ofbagian [[DeuteronomyKitab Ulangan]]
Image:Uncial 0308 POxy 4500 recto.jpg| [[Uncial 0308]]
Image:Codex Argenteus.jpg|TheHalaman first page of thepertama [[GothicCodex languageArgenteus]] dalam [[Codexbahasa ArgenteusGothik]]
Image:CodxAmiatinusFolio5rEzra.jpg|folio 5r of thedari [[Codex Amiatinus]], manuscriptnaskah ofAlkitab [[VulgateVulgata]]
</gallery>