Serangan bunuh diri: Perbedaan antara revisi
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{{Terorisme}}
'''Serangan bunuh diri''' adalah suatu serangan di mana (para) penyerang bermaksud untuk membunuh orang (atau orang-orang) lain dan bermaksud untuk turut mati dalam proses serangannya (lihat [[bunuh diri]]), misalnya dengan sebuah ledakan bom atau tabrakan yang dilakukan oleh si penyerang. Istilah ini kadang-kadang digunakan secara bebas untuk sebuah kejadian di mana maksud si penyerang tidak cukup jelas meskipun ia hampir pasti akan mati karena pembelaan diri atau pembalasan dari pihak yang diserang.
Di zaman modern, serangan seperti itu seringkali dilakukan dengan bantuan kendaraan atau [[bahan peledak]] seperti [[bom]] (''bom bunuh diri'') atau keduanya (mis. kendaraan yang dimuati dengan bahan peledak). Bila semua rencana berjalan mulus, si penyerang akan terbunuh dalam tabrakan atau peledakan.
Serangan bunuh diri adalah sejenis [[taktik militer|taktik]], yang direncanakan dan diorganisir oleh kelompok militer atau [[paramiliter]] yang berkomitmen tinggi. Menurut Robert Pape, direktur Proyek Chicago tentang terorisme bunuh diri dan pakar tentang bom bunuh diri, 95% dari serangan-serangan itu di waktu-waktu belakangan ini mempunyai tujuan strategis spesifik yang sama: memaksa negara yang menduduki untuk menarik pasukan-pasukannya dari sebuah wilayah yang diperebutkan. Pape mencatat bahwa dalam beberapa dasawarsa terakhir serangan-serangan bunuh diri sebagai taktik politik digunakan untuk melawan negara-negara demokratis di mana opini publik memainkan peranan dalam menentukan kebijakan.
<!--As a military tactic aimed at causing material damage in war, suicide attacks became widely known during the [[World War II|Second World War]] in the Pacific as [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] ships were attacked by [[Japan|Japanese]] [[kamikaze]] pilots who caused maximum damage by flying their explosive-laden [[aircraft]] into military targets. Since the [[1980s]], the apparent low cost and high lethality of the tactic perhaps explain its increased use by resistance movements, including [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] and [[insurgency|insurgent]] groups -- termed "[[terrorism|terrorist]] groups" by the targeted governments. Most notably, the tactic has been used in the [[Middle East]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. The [[Tamil Tigers]], who have been waging a terrorist campaign against the Sri Lankan government, were, as of [[2000]], "unequivocally the most effective and brutal terrorist organization ever to utilize suicide terrorism"<ref>according to Yoram Schweitzer of the Institute for [[Counter-Terrorism]] in [[Israel]]: [http://www.ict.org.il/articles/articledet.cfm?articleid=112]</ref>. Suicide bombings by [[Islamist]] [[militants]], mostly in the [[Al-Aqsa Intifada]] and the [[Iraqi insurgency]], have been the most frequent and cumulatively destructive. The [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] used [[Aircraft hijacking|hijacked]] airplanes to become the largest and most destructive individual suicide attacks on one day.
==Overview==
Military historians classify suicide bombing as a form of armed [[violence]], belonging to the tactics of [[asymmetric warfare]]—suicide bombings are only common when one side in a violent [[conflict]] lacks the means for effective, conventional attacks. The [[cost-benefit analysis]], expressed here by [[al-Qaeda]] leader [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]], is simple: "The method of [[martyrdom]] operation [is] the most successful way of inflicting damage against the opponent and the least costly to the [[mujahidin]] in terms of casualties".<ref>http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/ayman_bk.html</ref> The strategic rationale may be military, political, or both; the target may be military, in which case the bombing is usually classified as an act of war, or [[civilian]], in which case it is usually considered terrorism. Civilians are the favored targets, being easier to attack than [[Fortification|fortified]] installations, [[armored vehicle]]s, or armed and wary [[soldier]]s. The political message of the suicide bomber's action is potent, and the difficulty of deterring an attacker who is willing to die sparks greater fear than other forms of terrorism. The fact that the attacker dies in the attack eliminates the need for the attacker to have a plan to escape and avoid capture after he has completed the attack. The regular targeting of civilians, however, often calls into question the [[moral]] legitimacy, and often erodes the broader credibility, of the bomber's cause (although in some of the perpetrating group's base population, it may be thought to enhance those qualities).
The bombers themselves may be male or female, with males more common in some venues ([[female suicide bomber]]s are common among the Tamil Tigers, Chechen rebels, Palestinian militants and the [[Kurdistan Workers Party]]) and are often from [[middle-class]] backgrounds in countries with little [[political freedom]]. They are usually well-educated and hold strong political or [[Religion|religious beliefs]]; they are generally not [[poverty]]-stricken or [[Mental illness|mentally ill]], though some may have had difficult [[childhood]]s. The ritualistic communion of the [[extremist]] groups to which they belong ("lone wolf" suicide bombers are rare), in addition to their strongly-held beliefs, helps motivate their decision to commit suicide; for the religious, e.g. [[Hamas]], the rewards of an afterlife may provide additional impetus. Coercion and deception are occasionally factors.
{{suicide}}
Suicide attacks throughout history have taken various forms and have been encouraged by the lionization of those who laid down their lives for causes they deemed righteous. There are numerous examples, from [[Samson]]'s suicidal destruction of a [[Philistine]] temple (as recounted in the [[Book of Judges]]) to the legendary [[Switzerland|Swiss]] hero [[Arnold von Winkelried]] to the Japanese [[kamikaze]] pilots of [[World War II]]. The first modern suicide bombing—involving explosives deliberately carried to the target either on the person or in a civilian vehicle and delivered by surprise—was in [[1981]]; perfected by the factions of the [[Lebanese Civil War]] and especially by the [[Tamil Tigers]] of [[Sri Lanka]], the tactic had spread to dozens of countries by [[2005]]. Those hardest-hit were [[Lebanon]] during its [[Lebanese civil war|civil war]], Sri Lanka during [[Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka|its prolonged ethnic conflict]], [[Israel]] and the [[Palestinian Territories]] since [[1994]], and [[Iraq]] since the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|US-led invasion in 2003]].
Responses and reactions to suicide bombings are mixed, so that a full assessment of the action's impact—especially whether it helped or hindered the cause in whose name it was carried out—is difficult. The public response of politicians is usually one of determination and condemnation. Military and [[law enforcement]] are [[Mobilization|mobilized]] to disrupt or destroy the organization which planned the attack. The root cause of the violence is often obfuscated by the occupying power in order to avoid discussion of the military occupation that evokes the violent countermeasures. Often the bomber is portrayed as irrational and motivated by blind hatred. Those who support the bomber's cause will often hold him up as a hero; for example, the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka, who are mainly Hindus and Marxists, publish celebratory books containing the photos of those they regard as heroic freedom fighters; [[militant]] [[Islamist]] groups like Al Qaeda, for example, make use of religious language to lionize suicide bombers, calling the bomber ''Shahid'', or 'martyr'.
The term dates back to the [[1940s]], when it was used in reference to certain [[Germany|German]] and Japanese battle tactics, but did not gain its present meaning until [[1981]]. Various alternate terms have been used to [[Framing (communication theory)|frame]] the act differently: the Islamist use of ''shahid'' for the bomber or ''[[martyrdom operation]]'' for the bombing emphasizes the self-sacrificial aspects, while the term "homicide bombing" (preferred phraseology of the [[George W. Bush]] Administration and right-leaning [[News media|media]] outlets such as [[Fox News]]) emphasizes the fact that the bomber kills others.
== Tactics ==
In the case of using explosives, a suicide attack does not require remote or delayed detonation. In the case of causing a crash, it allows human guidance of the weapon (carrying it, driving a car or boat, flying a plane, etc.) without the need for remote or automatic control as in a [[guided missile]]. Also, obviously, the attack plan does not require a plan on escaping to safety from the enemy after the attack.
Examples:
*Suicide attack on foot: [[explosive belt]]
*attempted suicide attack with a plane as target: [[Richard Reid (shoe bomber)|Richard Reid]] on [[American Airlines Flight 63]]
*Suicide [[car bomb]]: [[1983 Beirut barracks bombing]], [[Central Bank bombing]], [[Suicide bombings in Iraq since 2003|numerous incidents in Iraq since 2003]]
*Suicide attack by a boat with explosives: [[USS Cole bombing]], attacks by the LTTE [[Sea Tigers]].
*Suicide attack by a submarine with explosives (human-steered [[torpedo]]): [[Kaiten]], used by Japan in [[World War II]]
*Suicide attack by a plane with explosives: [[kamikaze]]
*Suicide attack by a hijacked plane with fuel: [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], possibly [[Air France Flight 8969]] and attempted by [[Samuel Byck]]
*Suicide attack by diverting a bus to an abyss: [[Tel Aviv Jerusalem bus 405 massacre]]
*Suicide attack with guns: Kashmiri insurgents on the Indian Parliament in December 2001 killing 15 people.
In some cases a nuclear attack on a nuclear power may be considered a suicide attack in the wider sense, with the attacking country being sure or almost sure of going to suffer many fatalities in a retaliation. See also [[mutually assured destruction]].
See also [[suicide weapon]].
Suicide attacks usually (but not always) target poorly-guarded, non-military facilities and [[personnel]]. It can be either a military tactic, a political one, or a mixture of the two. It may qualify as [[terrorism]] when the intention is to kill, maim or terrorise a predominantly civilian target population, or fall within the definition of an act of war when it is committed against a military target under war conditions.
[[Image:Explosive-belt01.jpg|thumb|left|[[Explosive belt]] of a Palestinian suicide bomber, captured by the Israeli police. Anti-terrorism [[Military intelligence|intelligence]] claims such suicide bomber [[clothing]] is designed by a person they call [[The Tailor of Death]].]]
As a political tactic, suicide attacks send a message of impassioned opposition to enemy forces (that the attacker is willing to die for his or her cause) and a message of desperate recklessness to third parties (that the attacker feels the justice of the cause so strongly that he would rather die than submit and that he is giving little thought to the danger).{{fact}} However, it may backfire, as suicide attacks ignite rage and hatred and undermine the belief in the humanity of those who perpetrate them.{{fact}}
When used against civilian targets, suicide attacks usually cause fear in the target population greater than that caused by other forms of terrorism, as the fact that the attacker intends to die makes deterrents ineffective. {{fact}}
However, use against civilian targets has differing effects on their goals (see reaction below). Some [[list of economists|economists]] suggest that this tactic goes beyond symbolism and is actually a response to commodified, controlled, or [[value of life|devalued]] lives, as the suicide attackers apparently consider family prestige and financial compensation from the community as compensation for their own lives. {{fact}} Further supporting the idea that suicide attacks are a product of [[evolutionary psychology]], equatable "sacrifice for the group" tactics are used successfully by other societal animals in nature, most obviously by [[bees]]. {{fact}}
The [[Military doctrine|doctrine]] of asymmetric warfare views suicide attacks as a result of an imbalance of power, in which groups with little significant power resort to suicide bombing as a response to actions or policies of a group with greater power. {{fact}}
Groups which have significant power have no need to resort to suicide bombing to achieve their aims; consequently, suicide bombing is overwhelmingly used by guerrilla, and other [[irregular military|irregular fighting forces]]. Among many such groups, there are religious overtones to martyrdom: attackers and their supporters may believe that their sacrifice will be rewarded in an [[afterlife]]. Suicide attackers often believe that their actions are in accordance with moral or social standards because they are aimed at fighting forces and conditions that they perceive as unjust.
===Profile of a bomber===
A common reaction to a suicide bomber is to assume that he or she was motivated by despair, and probably came from a [[Poverty|poor]], neglected segment of [[society]]. Both President [[George W. Bush]] and the [[Dalai Lama]] have made this claim. However, [[Antropology|anthropologist]] [[Scott Atran]] found in a [[2003]] study that this is not a justifiable conclusion. A recently published paper by [[Harvard University]] Professor of Public Policy [[Alberto Abadie]] "cast[s] doubt on the widely held belief that terrorism stems from poverty, finding instead that terrorist violence is related to a nation's level of political freedom."<ref>http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~.aabadie.academic.ksg/povterr.pdf</ref> More specifically this is due to the transition of countries towards democratic freedoms. "Intermediate levels of political freedom are often experienced during times of political transitions, when governments are weak, political instability is elevated, so conditions are favorable for the appearance of terrorism".<ref>http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2004/11.04/05-terror.html Quote</ref><ref>http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~.aabadie.academic.ksg/povterr.pdf Original Paper</ref>
From 2003 to 2004, women were more frequently involved in suicide attacks in the Middle East and elsewhere. In ''Messengers of Death: Female Suicide Bombers'', Clara Beyler writes that women have channeled the frustration stemming from their role in society into ruthless behavior.<ref>http://www.ict.org.il/articles/articledet.cfm?articleid=508</ref> This can demonstrate strength and power in societies where women have a submissive role. That women have become more involved in suicide bombings makes it more difficult to profile a suicide bomber.
Some suicide bombers are educated, with [[college]] or [[university]] experience, and come from [[middle class]] homes. Most suicide bombers do not show signs of [[psychopathology]]. Indeed, leaders of the groups who perpetrate these attacks search for individuals who can be trusted to carry out the mission; those with mental illnesses are not ideal candidates. They often find solace in the ritualistic communion found in extremist circles, which are often headed by [[charisma|charismatic]] individuals looking for new [[recruit]]s.
==History==
===Background===
Often acts of terrorism, such as the suicide bombing of civilians, are compared to the self-sacrifice of soldiers in wartime. The principle difference is that the soldier is implementing the policy of a nation and is thus held responsible, whereas a civilian may or may not support their nation's policies and may or may not consider the terrorist's nation (or peoples) an enemy.
The concept of self-sacrifice has long been a part of war. From the earliest days of honoring fallen soldiers as [[heroes]], those who sacrifice themselves to further a political, moral, or cultural [[ideology]] have been and are still highly regarded figures in their respective societies. Soldiers who lay down their lives to protect their comrades are commonly awarded the highest recognition for [[courage]] in battle, while those who survive combat are honored for their physical and psychological sacrifice. An example for such self-sacrifice in warfare in medieval legend is [[Arnold von Winkelried]]. The earliest reference of a suicide attack outside a context of warfare is the Biblical story of the [[Amorite]]s attacking the [[Jews]]:
<blockquote>The Amorite who dwell on that mountain went out against you and pursued you as the bees would do; they struck you in Seir until Hormah. ([[Deuteronomy]] 1:44)</blockquote>
[[Rashi]] says "as the bees would do" means they attacked like how bees do (i.e. when they attacked and they would die) and not that they attack in swarms like bees.
During the [[Crusades]], the [[Knights Templar]] destroyed one of their own ships{{fact}}, killing 140 [[Christian]]s in order to kill ten times as many [[Muslim]]s. Another early example of suicide bombing occurred during the [[Belgian Revolution]], when the [[the Netherlands|Dutch]] [[Lieutenant]] [[Jan van Speijk]] detonated his own ship in the [[harbour]] of [[Antwerp]] to prevent being captured by the Belgians.
The act of deliberately destroying oneself to inflict harm on an enemy is more restricted to modern times and the era of explosives. The line between the two is considered by some a matter of subjectivity, as in the argument that many WWII soldiers killed were "[[martyr]]s" (in the sense that they were to suffer for the sake of a principle, rather than dying as the penalty for refusing to renounce a belief) because their life expectancy in combat was very low—often averaging only two or three months.
Modern suicide bombing as a political tool can be traced back to the assassination of Czar Alexander II of Russia in 1881. Alexander fell victim to a Nihilist plot. While driving on one of the central streets of St. Petersburg, near the Winter Palace, he was mortally wounded by the explosion of hand-made grenades and died a few hours afterwards. The Czar was killed by the Pole Ignacy Hryniewiecki (1856-1881), who died while intentionally exploding the bomb during the attack.
The ritual act of self-sacrifice during combat appeared in a large scale at the end of [[World War II]] with the [[Japan]]ese [[kamikaze]] bombers. In these attacks, airplanes were used as flying bombs. Later in the war, as Japan became more desperate, this act became formalized and ritualized, as planes were outfitted with explosives specific to the task of a suicide mission. Kamikaze strikes were a weapon of symmetric war used by the [[Empire of Japan]] chiefly against [[United States Navy]] [[aircraft carrier]]s.
The Japanese Navy also used both one and two man piloted [[Torpedo|torpedoes]] called ''[[kaiten]]'' on suicide missions. Although sometimes called [[midget submarine]]s, these were modified versions of the unmanned torpedoes of the time and are distinct from the torpedo-firing midget submarines used earlier in the war, which were designed to [[Infiltration|infiltrate]] [[shore]] defences and return to a [[mother ship]] after firing their torpedoes. Though extremely hazardous, these midget submarine attacks were not technically suicide missions; while the early ''kaiten'' were equipped with escape hatches, there is no evidence that they were ever used or that the pilots had any intention of using them. Later kaitens, by contrast, provided no means of escape.
After aiming a two-person kaiten at their target, the two crew members traditionally embraced and shot each other in the head. Social support for such choices was strong, due in part to Japanese cultural history, in which [[seppuku]], honorable suicide, was part of [[samurai]] [[duty]]. It was also fostered and indoctrinated by the Imperial program to [[Persuasion|persuade]], often through [[coercion]] (such as through doping{{fact}}), the Japanese soldiers to commit these acts.
Following World War II, [[Viet Minh]] "death volunteers" fought against the [[France|French]] [[colonial]] [[army]] by using a long stick-like explosive to detonate French tanks, as part of their urban warfare tactics.
In [[1972]] in the hall of the [[Lod Airport massacre|Lod airport]] in [[Tel-Aviv]], [[Israel]], three Japanese used [[grenade]]s and [[automatic rifle]]s to kill 26 people and wound more than a hundred.{{fact}} The group belonged to the [[Japanese Red Army]] (JRA) a terrorist organization created in [[1969]] and [[Military alliance|allied]] to the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] (PFLP). Until then, no group involved in terrorism had conducted such a suicide operation in Israel. Members of the JRA became instructors in [[martial art]] and [[Kamikaze]] operations at several [[Hezbollah]] training camps bringing the suicide techniques to the [[Middle East]].
Examples of suicide attacks and self-sacrifice can be found in American history. Americans who voluntarily stayed at the [[Battle of the Alamo|Alamo]] in Texas against what was known to be an overwhelming force of well armed Mexican regular soldiers are one example. In 1863, in both Fredericksburg, Virginia and Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, Americans conducted shoulder-to-shoulder charges over vast fields of fire against well defended soldiers with rifled firearms (the Stone Wall at [[Battle of Fredericksburg|Fredericksburg]] and [[Pickett's Charge]] at Gettysburg). During the Civil War it was considered a high honor to carry the military banner of a unit even though soldiers who did were almost certain to be the first shot. Likewise, African American soldiers in the Union Army conducted a suicide attack against a Confederate position in South Carolina, as honored in the 1988 film "[[Fort Wagner|Glory]]." In 1944, Americans who led the Allied Forces onto the beaches on [[Omaha Beach|D-Day]] to a man did not expect to see the end of the day, and in most cases did not. Self-sacrifice in American culture is as honored and glorified in the same way as it is in the examples from the other cultures as cited above.
In Britain the stories such as those of the Spartans at the [[Battle of Thermopylae]], [[Horatius Cocles|Horatio at the bridge]], the lone Viking who held the bridge at the [[Battle of Stamford Bridge]] etc., suicide defences rather then suicide attacks, were once held up as examples of what an Englishman should aspire to be.
Australian soldiers fighting at [[Gallipoli]] conducted a suicide attack against the well defended positions of Turks in World War I. Military officers of the highest rank repeatedly ordered soldiers to charge positions that were defended with heavy automatic weapons, and they did.
===1980s to present===
The first modern suicide bombing occurred in Iran in 1980 when 13-year old [[Hossein Fahmideh]] detonated himself as he ran up to an Iraqi tank at a key point in a battle of the Iran-Iraq War. Lebanon, during [[Lebanese Civil War|its civil war]], saw a modern suicide bombing: the [[Islamic Dawa Party]]'s [[car bomb]]ing of the Iraqi [[embassy]] in [[Beirut]], in December [[1981]]. [[Hezbollah]]'s [[April 1983 U.S. Embassy bombing|bombing of the U.S. embassy in April 1983]] and [[1983 Beirut barracks bombing|attack on United States Marine and French barracks]] in October 1983 brought suicide bombings international attention. Other parties to the civil war were quick to adopt the tactic, and by [[1999]] factions such as Hezbollah, the [[Amal Movement]], the [[Ba'ath Party]], and the [[Syrian Social Nationalist Party]] had carried out around 50 suicide bombings between them. (The latter of these groups sent the first [[female suicide bomber]] in [[1986]]. Female combatants have existed throughout human history and in many different societies, so it is possible that females who engage in suicidal attacks are not new.) Hezbollah was the only one to attack overseas, [[Israeli Embassy Attack in Buenos Aires|bombing the Israeli embassy]] (and possibly the [[AMIA Bombing|Argentine-Israeli Mutual Association building]]) in [[Buenos Aires]]; as its military and political power have grown, it has since abandoned the tactic.
Lebanon saw the first bombing, but it was the LTTE [[Tamil Tigers]] who perfected the tactic and inspired its use elsewhere [http://washingtontimes.com/op-ed/20060819-095333-3607r.htm]. Their [[LTTE Black Tiger|Black Tiger]] unit have committed between 76 and 168 (estimates vary) suicide bombings since [[1987]], using more than 240 attackers throughout [[South Asia]].
Their victims included former [[Prime Minister of India|Indian Prime Minister]] [[Rajiv Gandhi]] (assassinated by [[Thenmuli Rajaratnam]]), many prominent Lankan leaders (among them the late president [[Ranasinghe Premadasa]]), [[Colombo]]'s [[Central Bank bombing|Central Bank]], and even [[warship]]s. Sri Lanka's only female president [[Chandrika Kumaratunga]] was blinded in the right eye in a suicide attack in late 1999.
In [[Northern Ireland]], in the early [[1990s]], as part of the [[Provisional IRA campaign 1969-1997]], the [[PIRA|IRA]] used the tactic it called the "[[proxy bomb]]" - a sort of involuntary suicide bomb, where a victim was kidnapped and forced to drive a car bomb into its target. In one infamous operation in Derry in 1990, the PIRA chained a Catholic civilian to a car laden with explosives, held his family hostage and forced him to drive to a British Army checkpoint as a "human bomb" where the bomb exploded, killing himself and five soldiers. This practice was stopped due to the revulsion its caused among the [[Irish nationalist]] community.
Suicide bombing has, since [[1993]], been a particularly popular tactic amongst some [[Palestinian]] groups, including [[Hamas]], [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad|Islamic Jihad]], and the [[Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade]]. Bombers affiliated with these groups often use so-called "[[suicide belts]]", [[explosive device]]s (often including [[shrapnel]]) designed to be strapped to the body under clothing. In order to maximize the loss of life, the bombers may seek out cafés or city [[Bus|buses]] crowded with people at [[rush hour]], or less commonly a military target (for example, soldiers waiting for transport at roadside). By seeking enclosed locations, a successful bomber usually kills a number of people.
Palestinian [[television]] has aired a number of [[music videos]] and announcements that [[promotion (marketing)|promote]] [[eternal]] reward for children who seek "''[[shahada]]''",<ref>http://www.pmw.org.il/tv%20part1.html</ref> which ''Palestinian Media Watch'' has claimed is "Islamic motivation of suicide terrorists".<ref>http://www.pmw.org.il/index.html</ref> ''[[The Chicago Tribune]]'' has documented the concern of Palestinian parents that their children are encouraged to take part in suicide operations.<ref>http://www.eufunding.org/Textbooks/EuropesPalestinianChildren.html</ref> Israeli sources have also alleged that Hamas, Islamic Jihad and Fatah operate "Paradise Camps," training children as young as 11 to become suicide bombers.<ref>http://www.adl.org/PresRele/IslME_62/4153_62.asp</ref><ref>http://www.cnsnews.com/ForeignBureaus/archive/200107/For20010723d.html</ref>
[[Image:WTC attack 9-11.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The explosion resulting from the September 11, 2001 attack on the World Trade Center towers.]]
The [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] involved the [[Aircraft hijacking|hijacking]] of large passenger [[jet aircraft|jet]]s which were deliberately flown into the towers of the [[World Trade Center]] in [[New York City]] and [[the Pentagon]], killing everyone aboard the planes and thousands more in and around the targeted buildings, thus making it one of the most destructive suicide attacks in history. The passenger jets selected were required to be fully fueled to fly cross-country, turning the planes themselves into the largest suicide bombs in history. The 'September 11' attacks also had a vast economic and political impact: for the cost of the lives of the 19 hijackers and financial expenditure of around US$100,000, [[al-Qaeda]], the [[militant]] [[Islamist]] group responsible for the attacks, effected a trillion-dollar drop in global markets within one week, and triggered massive increases in military and security expenditure in response.
In [[December 22]] [[2001]], [[Richard Reid (terrorist)|Richard Reid]] attempted to destroy the [[American Airlines Flight 63]] by the means of a bomb hidden in a shoe. He was arrested after his attempt was foiled when he was unable to light the bomb's [[Fuse (explosives)|fuse]].
After the [[United States|U.S.]]-led [[invasion of Iraq in 2003]], [[Iraqi insurgency|Iraqi and foreign insurgents]] carried out waves of suicide bombings. They attacked [[United States military]] targets, although many civilian targets (eg. [[Shiite]] [[mosque]]s, international offices of the [[UN]] and the [[Red Cross]], Iraqi men waiting to apply for jobs with the new army and [[police]] force) were also attacked. In the lead up to the [[Iraqi parliamentary election, 2005|Iraqi parliamentary election]], on [[January 30]], [[2005]], suicide attacks upon civilian and security personnel involved with the [[election]]s increased, and there were reports of the insurgents co-opting disabled people as involuntary suicide bombers.<ref>http://www.smh.com.au/news/After-Saddam/Handicapped-boy-made-into-bomb/2005/02/01/1107228705132.html</ref> Professor Pape suggests that the bombings of Iraqis by Iraqis target those believed to be in the service of the American occupation.
Suicide bombings have occurred in more than 30 countries: [[Afghanistan]], [[Algeria]], [[Argentina]], [[Bangladesh]], [[China]], [[Colombia]], [[Croatia]], [[Egypt]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iraq]], [[Israel]], [[Jordan]], [[Kenya]], [[Kuwait]], [[Lebanon]], [[Morocco]], [[Pakistan]], the [[Palestinian territories]], [[Panama]], the [[Philippines]], [[Qatar]], [[Russia]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Tanzania]], [[Tunisia]], [[Turkey]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Uzbekistan]], and [[Yemen]]. (Suicide planes were also used in the [[United States]]).
[[Image:Londonbombing2.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The [[7_July_2005_London_bombings|7th July 2005 London]] [[suicide bombers]] caught on CCTV at [[Luton]] [[train station]] at 07:21 BST on July 7, 2005. From left to right, [[Hasib Hussain]], [[Jamal Lindsay|Germaine Lindsay]], [[Mohammad Sidique Khan]], and [[Shehzad Tanweer]].<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/4689739.stm#</ref> (Image: [[Crown copyright]])]]
==Range of opinions==
[[Image:Buss Suicide Bombing West Jerusalem3.jpg|thumb|250px|The wreckage of a bus in Jerusalem after a suicide bombing by Hamas on 18 June, in which 19 people were killed.]]
World leaders, especially those of countries that experience suicide bombings, usually express resolve to continue on their previous course of affairs after such attacks. They denounce suicide bombings and sometimes vow not to let such bombings deter ordinary people from going about their everyday business.
Suicide bombings are sometimes followed by [[reprisal]]s. As a successful suicide bomber cannot be targeted, the response is often a targeting of those believed to have sent the bomber. In targeting such [[organization]]s, Israel often uses military strikes against organizations, individuals, and possibly [[infrastructure]]. In the [[West Bank]] the [[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]] formerly [[Demolition|demolished]] homes that belong to families whose children (or renters whose tenants) had volunteered for such missions (whether successfully or not),<ref name="demolition">[http://www.btselem.org/download/200411_Punitive_House_Demolitions_Eng.pdf ''Through No Fault of Their Own: Punitive House Demolitions during the al-Aqsa Intifada''] [[B'Tselem]], November 2004</ref> though an internal review starting in October 2004 brought an end the policy.<ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Government/Law/Legal+Issues+and+Rulings/Human+Rights+Issues+for+the+Palestinian+population+-+April+2005.htm ''Human Rights Issues for the Palestinian population - April 2005''] Ed Farrian Ministry of Foreign Affairs</ref>
The effectiveness of suicide bombings—notably those of the Japanese [[kamikaze]]s, the Palestinian bombers, and even the September 11, 2001 attacks—is debatable.
Although kamikaze attacks could not stop the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] advance the [[Pacific War|Pacific]], they inflicted more casualties and delayed the fall of [[Japan]] for longer than might have been the case using only the conventional methods available to the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese Empire]]. Subsequently, Japanese leaders acknowledged the great cost in losing many of their best young men in these actions. The attacks reinforced the resolution of the [[World War II]] Allies to destroy the Imperial force, and may have had a significant effect in the decision to use [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombs]] against [[Japan]].
In the case of the September 11th attacks, the long-term effects remain to be seen, but in the short-to-medium term, the results were profoundly negative for Al-Qaeda as well as for the [[Taliban Movement]]. Furthermore, since the September 11 attacks, Western nations have diverted massive resources towards stopping similar actions, as well as tightening up [[border]]s, and military actions against various countries that the [[United States|U.S.]] and its allies believe to have been involved with terrorism. However, critics of the [[War on Terrorism]] suggest that in fact the results were profoundly positive, as the proceeding actions of the [[United States]] and other countries has increased the number of recruits, and their willingness to carry out suicide bombings.
It is more difficult to determine whether Palestinian suicide bombings have proved to be a successful tactic. In the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]], the suicide bombers were repeatedly deployed since the [[Oslo Accords]].<ref>http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Palestinian+terror+before+2000/Fatal+Terrorist+Attacks+in+Israel+Since+the+DOP+-S.htm</ref>
In [[1996]], the Israelis elected the conservative candidate [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] who promised to restore safety by conditioning every step in the [[peace process]] on Israel's assessment of the [[Palestinian National Authority|Palestinian Authority]]'s fulfillment of its obligations in curbing violence as outlined in the Oslo agreements.
In the course of [[al-Aqsa Intifada]] which followed the collapse of the [[Camp David 2000 Summit|Camp David II]] summit between the [[Palestine Liberation Organization|PLO]] and Israel, the number of suicide attacks drastically increased. In response, [[Israel]] [[Mobilization|mobilized]] its army in order to seal off the [[Gaza Strip]] and reinstate military control of the [[West Bank]], patrolling the area with [[tank]]s. The Israelis also began a campaign of targeted [[assassination]]s to kill [[militant]] Palestinian leaders, using jets and [[helicopter]]s to deploy [[Precision bombing|high-precision bombs and missiles]].
The suicide missions, having killed hundreds and maimed thousands of Israelis, are believed by some to have brought on a move to the political right, increasing public support for hard-line policies towards the Palestinians, and a government headed by the former [[general]], [[prime minister]] [[Ariel Sharon]]. In response to the suicide bombings, Sharon's government has imposed restrictions on the Palestinian community, making commerce, travel, school, and other aspects of life difficult for the Palestinians, with the average Palestinian suffering due to the choices of the suicide bombers. The [[Israeli West Bank barrier|Separation barrier]] under construction seem to be part of the Israeli government's efforts to stop suicide bombers from entering Israel proper.
Social support by some for this activity remained, however, as of the calling of a truce at the end of June [[2003]]. This may be due to the economic or social purpose of the suicide bombing and the bombers' refusal to accept external judgements on those who sanction them.
If the objective is to kill as many people as possible, suicide bombing by terrorists may thus "work" as a tactic in that it costs fewer lives than any conventional military tactic and targeting unarmed civilians is much easier than targeting soldiers. As an objective designed to achieve some form of favorable outcome, especially a political outcome, most believe it to be a failure. Terrorist campaigns involving the targeting of civilians have never won a war. Analysts believe that in order to win or succeed, any guerrilla or terrorist campaign must first transform into something more than a guerrilla or terrorist movement.<ref>http://www.washtimes.com/commentary/20050723-092116-9131r.htm</ref> Such analysts believe that a terrorist cause has little political attraction and success may be achieved only by renouncing terrorism and transforming the passions into politics.
Often extremists assert that, because they are outclassed militarily, suicide bombings are necessary. For example, the former leader of [[Hamas]] [[Ahmed Yassin|Sheikh Ahmad Yassin]] stated: "Once we have warplanes and missiles, then we can think of changing our means of legitimate self-defense. But right now, we can only tackle the fire with our bare hands and sacrifice ourselves."<ref>Quoted in [[Mia Bloom]], ''Dying to Kill: The Allure of Suicide Terror'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005) p. 3-4.</ref>
Such views are challenged both from the outside and from within Islam. According to Islamic jurist and scholar [[Khaled Abou Al-Fadl]],
<blockquote>The classical jurists, nearly without exception, argued that those who attack by stealth, while targeting noncombatants in order to terrorize the resident and wayfarer, are corrupters of the earth. "Resident and wayfarer" was a legal expression that meant that whether the attackers terrorize people in their urban centers or terrorize travelers, the result was the same: all such attacks constitute a corruption of the earth. The legal term given to people who act this way was ''muharibun'' (those who wage war against society), and the crime is called the crime of ''hiraba'' (waging war against society). The crime of ''hiraba'' was so serious and repugnant that, according to Islamic law, those guilty of this crime were considered enemies of humankind and were not to be given quarter or sanctuary anywhere.
...
Those who are familiar with the classical tradition will find the parallels between what were described as crimes of ''hiraba'' and what is often called terrorism today nothing short of remarkable. The classical jurists considered crimes such as assassinations, setting fires, or poisoning water wells - that could indiscriminately kill the innocent - as offenses of ''hiraba''. Furthermore, hijacking methods of transportation or crucifying people in order to spread fear and terror are also crimes of ''hiraba''. Importantly, Islamic law strictly prohibited the taking of hostages, the mutilation of corpses, and torture.<ref>[[Khaled Abou Al-Fadl]]: ''The Great Theft. Wrestling Islam from the Extremists'' (HarperCollins 2005. ISBN 0-06-056339-7) p.243</ref></blockquote>
=== The Islamic View ===
The vast majority of mainstream Islamic judicial opinion rejects suicide for any reason.<ref>http://islam.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?zi=1/XJ&sdn=islam&zu=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fatwa-online.com%2Fworship%2Fjihaad%2Fjih004%2Findex.htm</ref><ref>http://www.islamweb.net/ver2/Fatwa/ShowFatwa.php?Option=FatwaId&lang=E&Id=699</ref>
According to Professor Charles A. Kimball, chair of the Department of Religion at [[Wake Forest University]] in [[Winston-Salem, North Carolina|Winston-Salem]], "There is only one verse in the Qur'an that contains a phrase related to suicide", Verse 4:29 of the [[Qur'an]].<ref>http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/004.qmt.html</ref> It reads ''O you who believe! Do not consume your wealth in the wrong way-rather through trade mutually agreed to, and do not kill yourselves. Surely God is Merciful toward you.'' Some commentators believe that the phrase "do not kill yourselves" is better translated "do not kill each other", and some translations (e.g. [[M. H. Shakir|Shakir]]) reflect that view. (A note on the Qur'an's unique textual density is perhaps in order here: It is not uncommon for a single Qur'anic Arabic phrase to embrace two or more complementary meanings at the same time, and this may be the case with 4:29.)
Mainstream Islamic groups such as the European Council for Fatwa and Research use the Quran'ic verse Al-Anam 6:151 (''And take not life, which Allah has made sacred, except by way of justice and law'') as further reason to prohibit suicide.<ref>http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?cid=1119503549272&pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaEAskTheScholar</ref> In addition, the ''[[hadith]]'' unambiguously forbid suicide.<ref>http://www.aljazeerah.info/Islam/Islamic%20subjects/2004%20subjects/June/Committing%20Suicide%20Is%20Strictly%20Forbidden%20in%20Islam,%20Adil%20Salahi.htm</ref>
A contrary view is presented by Faisal Bodi writing in [[The Guardian]], who said many Muslims celebrate suicide bombers as heroes defending things they hold sacred.<ref>{{cite web
|last = Bodi
|first = Faisal
|year = 2001
|url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,543164,00.html
|title = Bombing for God
|work = Special report: Israel and the Middle East
|publisher = Guardian Newspapers Limited
|accessdate = 2006-07-19
}} - "In the Muslim world, then, we celebrate what we call the martyr-bombers. To us they are heroes defending the things we hold sacred. Polls in the Middle East show 75% of people in favour of martyr-bombings."</ref>
A tiny minority of Muslim clerics, while condemning the [[7 July 2005 London bombings|London bombings]], have stated that under certain circumstances Islamic suicide bombings are justified. For example, Sayed Mohammed Musawi, head of the World Islamic League in London, insisted "there should be a clear distinction between the suicide bombing of those who are trying to defend themselves from occupiers, which is something different from those who kill civilians, which is a big crime."<ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/22/AR2005072201629.html</ref> This is, however, far from the mainstream opinion; an overwhelming consensus of Muslim scholars hold that suicide attacks are simply forbidden.
Nevertheless, Islamist militant organisations (including [[Al-Qaeda]], [[Hamas]] and [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad Movement|Islamic Jihad]]) continue to argue that suicide operations are justified according to Islamic law, despite Islam's strict prohibition of suicide and murder.<ref>http://web.archive.org/web/20041011230417/abdulhaqq.jeeran.com/ruling.html</ref><ref>http://web.archive.org/web/20041009222904/abdulhaqq.jeeran.com/fatwa_sheikh_qaradhawi.html</ref> [[Irshad Manji]], in a conversation with one leader of Islamic Jihad noted their ideology.
<blockquote>"What's the difference between suicide, which the Koran condemns, and martyrdom?" I asked. "Suicide," he replied, "is done out of despair. But remember: most of our martyrs today were very successful in their earthly lives." In short, there was a future to live for--and they detonated it anyway.</blockquote>
Since the four suicide bombings in London, there have been many scholastic refutations of suicide bombings from Sunni Muslims. Ihsanic Intelligence, a London-based Islamic think-tank, published their two-year study into suicide bombings in the name of Islam, titled 'The Hijacked Caravan',<ref>http://www.ihsanic-intelligence.com/dox/The_Hijacked_Caravan.pdf</ref> which concluded that, "The technique of suicide bombing is anathema, antithetical and abhorrent to Sunni Islam. It is considered legally forbidden, constituting a reprehensible innovation in the Islamic tradition, morally an enormity of sin combining suicide and murder and theologically an act which has consequences of eternal damnation."<ref>http://mac.abc.se/home/onesr/ez/isl/0-sbm/The.Hijacked.Caravan.html</ref> The Oxford-based Malayist jurist, Shaykh Muhammad Afifi al-Akiti, issued his landmark fatwa on suicide bombing and targeting innocent civilians, titled 'Defending the Transgressed, by Censuring the Reckless against the Killing of Civilians', where he states suicide bombing in its most widespread form, is forbidden: 'If the attack involves a bomb placed on the body or placed so close to the bomber that when the bomber detonates it the bomber is certain [yaqin] to die, then the More Correct Position according to us is that it does constitute suicide. This is because the bomber, being also the Maqtul [the one killed], is unquestionably the same Qatil [the immediate/active agent that kills] = Qatil Nafsahu [suicide]"<ref>http://www.livingislam.org/k/dcmm_e.html</ref>
In January of 2006, one of [[Shi'a Islam|Shia Islam]]'s highest ranking [[marja]] clerics, [[Yousef Sanei|Ayatollah al-Udhma Yousof al-Sanei]] also decreed a [[fatwa]] against suicide bombing, declaring it as a "terrorist act".<ref>http://www.adnki.com/index_2Level.php?cat=Terrorism&loid=8.0.245083220&par=0</ref>
== Usage and related terms ==
The usage of the term "suicide bombing" dates back to at least [[1940]]. An [[August 10]], [[1940]] [[New York Times]] article mentions the term in relation to [[Germany|German]] tactics. A [[March 4]], [[1942]] article refers to a Japanese attempt at a "suicide bombing" on an American carrier. [[The Times]] (London) of April 15, 1947, page 2, refers to a new pilotless, radio-controlled rocket missile thus: "Designed originally as a counter-measure to the Japanese 'suicide-bomber,' it is now a potent weapon for defence or offence."
The quotes are in the original and suggest that the phrase was an existing one. An earlier article (Aug 21, 1945, page 6) refers to a [[kamikaze]] plane as a "suicide-bomb."
The term with the meaning "an attacker blowing up himself or a vehicle to kill others" appeared in [[1981]] when it was used in an [[Associated Press]] article to describe the bombing of the Iraqi Embassy in Beirut.
In order to assign either a more positive or negative connotation to the act, suicide bombing is sometimes referred to by different terms. Islamists often call the act a ''isshtahad'' (meaning ''[[martyrdom operation]]''), and the suicide bomber a ''shahid'' (pl. ''shuhada'', literally 'witness' and usually translated as 'martyr'). The term denotes one who died in order to testify his faith in God ([[Allah]]), for example those who die while waging ''[[jihad|jihad bis saif]]''; it is applied to suicide bombers, by the [[Palestinian Authority]] among others, in part to overcome Islamic strictures against suicide. This term has been embraced by [[Hamas]], [[Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades]], [[Fatah]] and other Palestinian factions engaging in suicide bombings. (The title is by no means restricted to suicide bombers and can be used for a wide range of people, including innocent victims; [[Muhammad al-Durra]], for example, is among the most famous ''shuhada'' of the Intifada, and even a few non-Palestinians such as [[Tom Hurndall]] and [[Rachel Corrie]] have been called ''shahid''.)
==="Homicide bombing"===
Some effort has been made to replace the term ''suicide bombing'' with the term '''''homicide bombing'''''. The first such use was by [[White House Press Secretary]] [[Ari Fleischer]] in April [[2002]].<ref>http://www.wordspy.com/words/homicidebombing.asp</ref> The ''[[Fox News Channel]]'' and the ''[[New York Post]]'', both owned by [[Rupert Murdoch]]'s [[News Corporation]], are two media organizations that have adopted the term.
Arguably, "homicide bombing" is a less useful term. Although it correctly indicates that the bomber's primary objective is the death of others, it fails to capture the distinctive feature of suicide bombings, namely the bombers' use of means which they are aware will inevitably bring about their own deaths. For instance, [[Timothy McVeigh]] and [[Theodore Kaczynski]] could both ostensibly be called "homicide bombers," but neither could be called a "suicide bomber." To this extent it has also been argued that all bombings are "homicide bombings", as loss of life is their inherent aim.
==="Genocide bombing"===
Another attempted replacement is '''''genocide bombing'''''. The term was coined in 2002 by Canadian member of parliament [[Irwin Cotler]], in an effort to replace the term "[[homicide bomber]]" as a substitute for "suicide bomber."<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.hfienberg.com/kesher/2002/06/genocide-bombing-two-months-after.html| title=Kesher Talk| year=June 24, 2002| accessdate=2006-05-13}}</ref> The intention was to focus attention on the alleged intention of [[genocide]] by militant [[Palestinians]] in their calls to "Wipe Israel off the map."<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/commentary/20040423-081806-2252r.htm| title=Washington Times Commentary|}}</ref> This term is not common.
==="Islamikaze"===
In 1997, Professor Raphael Israeli coined the term '''''Islamikaze''''' as a proposed description for Islamic suicide bombers.<ref name=Islamikaze1>{{cite journal |last=Israeli |first=Raphael |year=Fall 1997 |title=Islamikaze and their Significance |journal=Journal of Terrorism and Political Violence |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=96-121 |id=ISSN: 0954-6553}} ''See also'' {{cite book |last=Israeli |first=Raphael |title=Green Crescent Over Nazareth: The Displacement of Christians by Muslims in the Holy Land |journal=Journal of Terrorism and Political Violence |date=2002-05-01 |publisher=Routledge (UK) |id=ISBN 0-7146-5258-X |pages= 70, fn.23}}, in which Professor Israeli repeats the claim that his 1997 article coined the term "Islamikaze."</ref> According to Professor Israeli, he developed the term "Islamikaze" in an effort to signify that the primary goal of "suicide bombers" is not suicide but the infliction of damage to the enemy.<ref name=JerusalemLetter>{{cite journal |last=Israeli |first=Rafael |date=2002-04-15 |title=Poison: The Use of Blood Libel in the War Against Israel |journal=Jerusalem Letter / Viewpoints |issue=476 |url=http://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp476.htm |accessdate=2006-09-20 |pages=fn.3}}</ref>
The term has not entered into widespread usage.<ref name=MuslimPolitics>{{cite book |last=Eikelman |first=Dale |coauthors=James Piscatori |title=Muslim Politics |date=2004-07-26 |publisher=Princeton University Press |id=ISBN 0-691-12053-6 |pages=ix |quote=In this environment, ''Islamikaze'', a term proposed by an Israeli colleague of Moroccan origin (Israeli 2003), is unlikely to catch on.}}</ref> Primarily, it continues to be used in Professor Israeli's own publications and in works discussing Professor Israeli's publications. For example, the most prominent usage of the term is probably Professor Israeli's 2003 book.<ref name=Israeli2003>{{cite book |last=Israeli |first=Rafael |title=Islamikaze: Manifestations of Islamic Martyrology |date=2003-08-30 |publisher=Frank Cass |id=ISBN 0-7146-8391-4}}</ref> Other examples of recent usage of the term include Stephen Blackwell, who criticizes Israeli's coinage as a "flippant phrase" that "demonstrates a fundamental ignorance of Islamic culture",<ref name=Blackwell>{{cite journal |last=Blackwell |first=Stephen |date=May 2005 |title=Between Tradition and Transition: State Building, Society and Security in the Old and New Iraq |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |issue=Volume 41, No. 3 |pages=445-452}}</ref> and former U.S. Senator [[Sam Nunn]], who discusses whether Israeli's concept of "Islamikazes" as motivated by military rather than suicidal goals may be helpful in profiling possible suicide bombers.<ref name=Nunn>{{cite journal |last=Nunn |first=Sam |date=2004 |title=Thinking the Inevitable: Suicide Attacks in
America and the Design of Effective Public
Safety Policies |journal=Journal of Homeland Security and
Emergency Management |issue=Volume 1, Issue 4, Article 401 |pages=6}}</ref>
-->
== Catatan ==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>
== Lihat pula ==
* [[Jing Ke]]
* [[Hassan-i Sabbah]]
* [[Forlorn hope]]
* [[Serangan gelombang manusia]]
* [[Asasinasi]]
* [[Bom bunuh diri bayi]]
* [[Bom bunuh diri anak dalam konflik Israel-Palestina]]
* [[Bom bunuh diri perempuan]]
* [[Bom keledai|Menggunakan binatang bukan bunuh diri]]
* [[Al Fateh]]
* [[Daftar serangan bunuh diri Hamas]]
* [[Daftar serangan bunuh diri Jihad Islami Palestina]]
* [[Daftar serangan bunuh diri Brigade Syuhada Al-Aqsa]]
* [[The Tailor of Death]]
* [[Serangan bunuh diri dalam budaya pop]]
== Pranala luar, sumber, rujukan ==
*[http://www.channel4.com/news/microsites/C/cult_suicide_bomber/index.html Channel 4's Cult of the Suicide Bomber]
* [http://www.liberalislam.net/israeli_psycho.html Psikologi bom bunuh diri Palestina dan paranoia Israel]
* {{PDFlink|[http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/faculty/harrison/papers/terrorism1.pdf The Economic Logic of Suicide Terrorism oleh Mark Harrison]}}
* [http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/2003/06/hoffman.htm The Logic of Suicide Terrorism] oleh [[Bruce Hoffman]] diterbitkan dalam [[The Atlantic Magazine]] Juni 2003
* [http://islam.about.com/cs/currentevents/a/suicide_bomb.htm Suicide Bombers] Mengapa mereka melakukannya, dan apa kata Islam tentang tindakan mereka?
* [http://www.ihsanic-intelligence.com/dox/The_Hijacked_Caravan.pdf The Hijacked Caravan] Studi yang menentang bom bunuh diri dalaml Islam oleh Ihsanic Intelligence
* [http://www.livingislam.org/k/dcmm_e.html Defending the Transgressed] Fatwa menentang bom bunuh diri oleh Shaykh Muhammad Afifi al-Akiti
* [http://www.israelinsider.com/channels/security/articles/sec_0049.htm What makes suicide bombers tick?] - Profil pelaku bom bunuh diri dan info
* [http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/2002/06/brooks.htm The Culture of Martyrdom] Bagaimana bom bunuh diri tidak hanya menjadi cara tetapi juga tujuan - oleh [[David Brooks (wartawan)|David Brooks]] dalam [[The Atlantic Magazine]] Juni 2002
* [http://hrw.org/reports/2002/isrl-pa/ Erased In A Moment] Serangan bom bunuh diri terhadap warga sipil Israel [Human Rights Watch]
* [http://www.wordspy.com/words/suicidebomber.asp Sejarah penggunaan frasa "pengebom bunuh diri"]
* [http://www.iwar.org.uk/infocon/suicide-bombers.htm USAF Suicide Bombers Intelligence Brief]
* [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/05/22/wmid22.xml Apakah Israel berhasil mengalahkan pelaku bom bunuh diri?] The Telegraph.
* [http://graphics7.nytimes.com/images/2004/09/10/international/0910BOMBERSch.gif Women Armed for Terror] - daftar perempuan pelaku bom bunuh diri.
*[http://abdulhaqq.jeeran.com/operations.html Sebuah pandangan Islam tentang Operasi Syuhada]
*[http://www.waronline.org/en/terror/suicide.htm Mekanik sebuah bom yang hidup]
*[http://www.spur.asn.au/chronology_of_suicide_bomb_attacks_by_Tamil_Tigers_in_sri_Lanka.htm Kronologi serangan bom bunuh diri oleh Macan Tamil di Sri Lanka]
*[http://www.isracast.com/tech_news/081004_tech.htm Bagaimana peralatan laser dapat mendeteksi sabuk peledak atau senjata kimia pelaku bom bunuh diri dari puluhan meter jauhnya] - Artikel web
*[http://stage.co.il/media/largefiles/doribenisraelkario299562.wmv klip singkat memperlihatkan para korban bom bunuh diri Palestina ] ''Peringatan: Gambar-gambar Mungkin Tidak Sesuai untuk Segala Usia''
*[http://www.bogvaerker.dk/suicide.html An examination of the most thoroughly stated 'fatwa' approving of suicide bombing.] oleh Abdassamad Clarke
*[http://www.pierrerehov.com/ Suicide Killers] - 2006 Dokumenter oleh Pierre Rehov
*[http://www.manyriversfilms.co.uk/ Cult of the Suicide Bomber]- sejarah televisi oleh bekas agen CIA Robert Baer
*[http://www.canasb.ca/default.aspx Canadians Against Suicide Bombing] [[Salim Mansur]] anggota terkemuka
*[http://www.conceptwizard.com/info.html Concept Wizard - Mideast Conflict presentations] Flash, berbagai bahasa
**[http://www.conceptwizard.com/imagine/imagine_n.html IMAGINE] Flash, gambar-gambar pengeboman
== Bacaan lebih lanjut ==
* Rex Hudson (2002), ''Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists'', Lyons Press, ISBN 1-58574-754-8
* Mia Bloom (2005), ''Dying to Kill: The Allure of Suicide Terror'', Columbia University Press, ISBN 0-231-13320-0
* [[Robert Pape]] (2005), ''[[Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism]]'', Random House, ISBN 1-4000-6317-5
* Diego Gambetta, Editor (2005), ''Making Sense of Suicide Missions'', OUP, ISBN 0-19-927699-4
* Farhad Khosrokhavar, translated by David Macey (2005), ''Suicide Bombers: Allah's New Martyrs'', Pluto Press, ISBN 0-7453-2283-2
*[[Martin Kramer]]. 1996. [http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Sacrifice.htm Sacrifice and "Self-Martyrdom" in Shi'ite Lebanon].
*[[Bernard B. Fall]]. 1966. ''Hell in a Very Small Place: The Siege of Dien Bien Phu''. Da Capo Press. (References to suicide bombers on pages 352 and 368).
* [[Rosemarie Skaine]] (2006), "[[Female Suicide Bombers]]", McFarland Publishers, ISBN 0-7864-2615-2
*M.R. Narayan Swamy. 1996. ''Tigers of Lanka: From Boys to Guerrillas'', 2nd Ed. Vijitha Yapa Bookshop (Colombo).
* Dr. Eyad Sarraj. "Why we have become Suicide Bombers".[http://www.mediareviewnet.com/;וע התאבדות]
* Gerhart Scheit. 2005. ''Suicide Attack'' ISBN 3-924627-87-8 (German)
* Reuter, Christoph trans. Ragg-Kirby, Helena. ''My Life is a Weapon: A Modern History of Suicide Bombing.'' Princeton University Press: Princeton, 2004.
*{{cite book
|last = Davis
|first = Joyce M.
|year = 2004
|title = Martyrs: Innocence, Vengeance, and Despair in the Middle East
|publisher = Palgrave Macmillan
|id = ISBN 1-4039-6681-8
}}
[[Kategori:Terorisme]]
[[Kategori:Bom bunuh diri]]
[[Kategori:Bunuh diri]]
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