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[[File:Byzantiumby650AD.svg|thumb|Bagian-bagian timur Kekaisaran Romawi Timur yang ditaklukkan oleh Arab]]
Populasi Yahudi lokal dan Kristen pribumi, yang tinggal sebagai minoritas agama dan dibebani pajak (sementara Muslim membayar "Zakat") untuk membiayai Perang-perang Romawi Timur dan Sasaniyah, sering membantu Muslim mengambil alih tanah mereka dari Bizantium dan Persia, menghasilkan penaklukan-penaklukan yang luar biasa kilat.<ref>{{Harvtxtsfn|Esposito|2000|p=38}}</ref><ref>Hofmann (2007), p. 86</ref> Seiring ditaklukkannya area-area baru, mereka juga memanfaatkan perdagangan bebas dengan wilayah lain di negara Islam yang tengah tumbuh tersebut, sementara, untuk mendukung kegiatan komersial, pajak diterapkan pada kekayaan alih-alih perdagangan.<ref>''Islam: An Illustrated History'' oleh Greville Stewart Parker Freeman-Grenville, Stuart Christopher Munro-Hay hlm. 40</ref> Orang-orang muslim membayar [[zakat]] hartanya untuk diberikan kepada orang-orang miskin. Sejak [[Piagam Madinah]], naskah yang dibuat oleh [[Nabi Muhammad]], orang-orang Yahudi dan Kristen tetap menggunakan hukum dan hakim mereka sendiri.<ref>{{cite journal|author=R. B. Serjeant|title=Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00057761|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|year=1978|volume= 41|pages= 1–42}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author= R. B. Serjeant |title=The Constitution of Medina|journal=Islamic Quarterly|volume= 8 |year=1964|page= 4}}</ref><ref name="Constitution of Medina">[https://www.scribd.com/doc/15118390/Madinah-Peace-Treaty ''Constitution of Medina'']. scribd.com</ref> Untuk membantu perluasan negara yang cepat ini, sistem pengumpulan pajak Romawi Timur dan Persia dipertahankan dan rakyat membayar pajak per kapita yang lebih rendah dari masa Romawi Timur dan Persia.
Pada 639, Umar menunjuk [[Muawiyah bin Abi Sufyan]] sebagai gubernur Syam setelah gubernur sebelumnya meninggal dalam sebuah wabah di antara 25.000 orang lebih.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wilferd Madelung|title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC|date=15 October 1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64696-3|page=61}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxtsfn|Rahman|1999|p=40}}</ref> Untuk menghentikan usikan Romawi Timur dari arah laut selama [[Peperangan Romawi Timur-Arab]], pada 649 Muawiyah menyusun satu angkatan laut, dengan personilnya adalah para pelaut [[Monofisitisme|Kristen monofisit]], [[Koptik]], dan [[Kristen Suriah Yakubiyah]] serta pasukan Muslim, yang mengalahkan angkatan laut Bizantium pada [[Pertempuran Foinikos]] pada 655, membuka Laut Tengah untuk kapal-kapal Muslim.<ref>{{cite book|author=Archibald Ross Lewis|title=European Naval and Maritime History, 300–1500|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OzIRDbARyWIC&pg=PA24|year=1985|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-32082-7|pages=24–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Leonard Michael Kroll|title=History of the Jihad: Islam Versus Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aAPc3mYwZpIC&pg=PA123|date=2005|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4634-5730-3|pages=123–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Timothy E. Gregory|title=A History of Byzantium|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KIFJiOCSYc8C&pg=PA183|date=26 August 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-5997-8|pages=183–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Mark Weston|title=Prophets and Princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&pg=PA61|date=28 July 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-18257-4|pages=61–}}</ref>
Pasukan-pasukan Muslim awal berkemah jauh dari kota karena Umar khawatir kalau mereka dapat terpikat oleh harta dan kemewahan, menjauhi peribadahan kepada Allah, mengumpulkan kekayaan, dan membentuk dinasti.<ref name="Brill Archive"/><ref>{{cite book|author1=Khalid Muhammad Khalid|author2=Muhammad Khali Khalid|title=Men Around the Messenger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T-uN7tDGSZMC&pg=PA117|date=February 2005|publisher=The Other Press|isbn=978-983-9154-73-3|pages=117–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=P. M. Holt|author2=Peter Malcolm Holt|author3=Ann K. S. Lambton|author4=Bernard Lewis|title=The Cambridge History of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UfQWT_esc5cC&pg=PA605|date=1977|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29138-5|pages=605–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Maulana Muhammad Ali|title=The Early Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=flg-UX6fOdkC&pg=PT101|date=9 August 2011|publisher=eBookIt.com|isbn=978-1-934271-25-4|pages=101–}}</ref> Dengan tetap berada di kemah-kemah ini jauh dari kota juga memastikan tidak adanya tekanan bagi penduduk lokal sehingga tetap berjalan normal. Beberapa pangkalan kemah ini kemudian tumbuh menjadi kota seperti [[Basrah]] dan [[Kufah]] di Iraq dan [[Fustat]] di Mesir.<ref>{{Harvtxtsfn|Rahman|1999|p=37}}</ref>
Ketika Umar dibunuh pada 644, [[Utsman bin Affan]], sepupu dari kakek dan dua kali menantu Muhammad, menjadi khalifah berikutnya. Karena bahasa Arab ditulis tanpa vokal, beragam penutur dialek bahasa Arab dan bahasa lain membaca Quran dengan variasi fonetis yang dapat mengubah artinya. Ketika Utsman bin Affan menyadari hal ini, dia memerintahkan penyusunan satu salinan standar Quran dan salinan-salinannya dikirim ke beberapa pusat wilayah kekuasaan Islam yang terus meluas.<ref>Schimmel, Annemarie; Barbar Rivolta (Summer, 1992). "Islamic Calligraphy". ''The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin'', New Series 50 (1): 3.</ref>
AsSeiring [[Uthman ibn Affan]] became veryUtsman oldmenua, [[Marwan Ibin al-Hakam]], aseorang relativekerabat ofdari Muawiyah, slippedmenyelinap intoke thedalam vacuumkekosongan, becomingmenjadi hissekretarisnya secretarydan andperlahan slowlymengambil assuming more controlkendali. When UthmanKetika wasUtsman assassinateddibunuh inpada 656, [[Ali ibnbin Abi TalibThalib]], asepupu cousindan and son-in-law ofmenantu Muhammad, assumedmenaiki theposisi positionkhalifah ofdan caliphmemindah andibukota movedke theKufah capital to Kufa indi Iraq. [[Muawiyah I,bin theAbi governorSufyan]], ofgubernur SyriaSuriah, anddan Marwan Ibin demandedal-Hakam arrestmenuntut ofpenangkapan thepelaku culpritspembunuhan. Marwan Imenggerakkan manipulatedsetiap everyorang onedan andmembuat created conflictkonflik, whichyang resulted in themembuahkan [[ FirstPerang Fitna|firstsaudara civilIslam warpertama]] ( the " FirstFitnah Fitnapertama"). Ali wasdibunuh assassinated byoleh [[ KharijitesKhawarij]] inpada 661. SixEnam monthsbulan laterkemudian inpada 661, indemi thekepentingan interestperdamaian, ofputra peaceAli, Ali's son [[Hasan ibnbin Ali|Hasan]], mademembuat aperjanjian peacedamai treaty withdengan Muawiyah I. In theDalam [[ Hasan–MuawiyaPerjanjian treatyHasan–Mu'awiyah]], Hasan ibnmenyerahkan Alikekuasaan handedkepada overMuawiyah powerdengan tosyarat Muawiyadia onakan theberbuat condition that he would be just to theadil peoplekepada andrakyat notdan establishtidak amembuat dynastydinasti aftersetelah hisdia deathmeninggal.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wilferd Madelung|title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64696-3|page=232}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sahih-bukhari.com/Pages/Bukhari_3_49.php|title=Sahih Bukhari : Book of "Peacemaking"|first=Sahih|last=Bukhari}}</ref> Muawiyah subsequentlypada brokeakhirnya themelanggar conditionspersyaratan oftersebut thedan agreement and established thememulai [[ UmayyadDinasti dynastyUmayyah]], with a capital inberibukat [[ DamascusDamaskus]]. <ref>{{ Harvtxtsfn|Holt|1977a|pp=67–72}} </ref> [[ HusaynHusain ibnbin Ali]], byyang thensaat itu adalah satu-satunya cucu Muhammad 's onlyyang livingmasih grandsonhidup, refusedmenolak tountuk swearberbaiat allegianceke tokeluarga the UmayyadsUmayyah. HeDia wasterbunuh killed in thedi [[ Battle ofPertempuran Karbala]] thedi tahun sameyang yearsama, indi anperistiwa eventyang stillmasih mourneddiperingati bysebagai Shiahari onberkabung theoleh Syiah, [[ DayHari of AshuraAsyura]]. UnrestKerusuhan, calledyang thedikenal dengan [[ SecondFitnah Fitnakedua]] , continuedberlanjut, buttetapi kekuasaan Muslim ruleterus wasmeluas extendeddi underbawah Muawiyah toke [[ RhodesRodos]], [[ CreteKreta]], [[Kabul]], [[Bukhara]], anddan [[Samarkand]], anddan expandedjuga inmeluas ke [[ NorthAfrika AfricaUtara]]. InPada 664, Arabpasukan armiesArab conqueredmenaklukkan [[Kabul]],<ref>Roberts, J: ''History of the World''. Penguin, 1994.</ref> anddan inpada 665 pushedmendesak intosampai theke [[ MaghrebArab Maghrib|Magrib]].<ref>Dermenghem, E. (1958). ''Muhammad and the Islamic tradition''. New York: Harper Brothers. p. 183.</ref> ▼
When Umar was assassinated in 644, [[Uthman ibn Affan]] second cousin and twice son-in-law of Muhammad became the next caliph. As the Arabic language is written without vowels, speakers of different Arabic dialects and other languages recited the Quran with phonetic variations that could alter the meaning of the text. When Uthman ibn Affan became aware of this, he ordered a standard copy of the Quran to be prepared. Begun during his reign, the [[History of the Quran|compilation of the Quran]] was finished some time between 650 and 656, and copies were sent out to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire.<ref>Schimmel, Annemarie; Barbar Rivolta (Summer, 1992). "Islamic Calligraphy". ''The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin'', New Series 50 (1): 3.</ref>
After Muhammad's death, the old tribal differences between the Arabs started to resurface. Following the [[Roman–Persian Wars]] and the [[Byzantine–Sassanid Wars]] deep-rooted differences between Iraq (formerly under the Persian [[Sassanid Empire]]) and Syria (formerly under the [[Byzantine Empire]]) also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area.<ref>''Iraq a Complicated State: Iraq's Freedom War'' by Karim M. S. Al-Zubaidi p. 32</ref>
▲As [[Uthman ibn Affan]] became very old, [[Marwan I]], a relative of Muawiyah, slipped into the vacuum, becoming his secretary and slowly assuming more control. When Uthman was assassinated in 656, [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], a cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, assumed the position of caliph and moved the capital to Kufa in Iraq. Muawiyah I, the governor of Syria, and Marwan I demanded arrest of the culprits. Marwan I manipulated every one and created conflict, which resulted in the [[First Fitna|first civil war]] (the "First Fitna"). Ali was assassinated by [[Kharijites]] in 661. Six months later in 661, in the interest of peace, Ali's son [[Hasan ibn Ali|Hasan]], made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I. In the [[Hasan–Muawiya treaty]], Hasan ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition that he would be just to the people and not establish a dynasty after his death.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wilferd Madelung|title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64696-3|page=232}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sahih-bukhari.com/Pages/Bukhari_3_49.php|title=Sahih Bukhari : Book of "Peacemaking"|first=Sahih|last=Bukhari}}</ref> Muawiyah subsequently broke the conditions of the agreement and established the [[Umayyad dynasty]], with a capital in [[Damascus]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Holt|1977a|pp=67–72}}</ref> [[Husayn ibn Ali]], by then Muhammad's only living grandson, refused to swear allegiance to the Umayyads. He was killed in the [[Battle of Karbala]] the same year, in an event still mourned by Shia on the [[Day of Ashura]]. Unrest, called the [[Second Fitna]] continued, but Muslim rule was extended under Muawiyah to [[Rhodes]], [[Crete]], [[Kabul]], [[Bukhara]], and [[Samarkand]], and expanded in [[North Africa]]. In 664, Arab armies conquered [[Kabul]],<ref>Roberts, J: ''History of the World''. Penguin, 1994.</ref> and in 665 pushed into the [[Maghreb]].<ref>Dermenghem, E. (1958). ''Muhammad and the Islamic tradition''. New York: Harper Brothers. p. 183.</ref>
== Islam di Indonesia ==
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