|
Dalam model awal pembentukan atmosfer dan laut, atmosfer kedua terbentuk karena pengeluaran gas volatil dari interior Bumi. Anggapan ini sekarang berubah, sebab volatil diperkirakan banyak dikeluarkan selama akresi dalam sebuah proses yang dikenal sebagai ''pengawagasan tubrukan''. Anggapan ini memperkirakan lautan dan atmosfer sudah mulai terbentuk pada tahap pembetukan bumi.{{r|Kasting03}} Atmosfer yang terbentuk kemungkinan berisi [[uap air]], [[karbon dioksida]], [[nitrogen]], dan sejumlah kecil gas-gas lainnya.{{r|Kasting-2006}}
[[Planetisimal]] dalam jarak 1 [[satuan astronomi]] (AU), jarak Bumi dari Matahari, kemungkinan tidak berpengaruh terhadap pengadaan air di Bumi, karena nebula surya terlalu panas untuk mendukung pembentukan es dan hidrasi bebatuan oleh uap air memerlukan waktu yang terlalu lama.{{r|Kasting03}}<ref name=Selsis>{{cite book |last=Selsis |first=Franck |chapter=Chapter 11. The Prebiotic Atmosphere of the Earth |title=Astrobiology: Future perspectives |series=Astrophysics and space science library |volume=305 |pages=267–286 |year=2005 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-2305-7_11}}</ref> Air kemungkinan besar berasal dari [[meteorit]] yang ada di sabuk luar asteroid serta beberapa embrio planet besar yang jaraknya lebih dari 2,5 AU.{{r|Kasting03|Morbidelli}} [[Komet]] mungkin juga berkontribusi terhadap pengadaan air di Bumi. Meskipun sebagian besar komet saat ini mengorbit Matahari pada jarak yang jauh, namun simulasi komputer menunjukkan bahwa pada awalnya komet-komet tersebut mengorbit Matahari pada jarak yang lebih dekat.{{r|Lunine|page1=130-132}}
Seiring Bumi mulai mendingin, [[awan]]-awan mulai terbentuk. Akhirnya hujan menciptakan lautan. Bukti terbaru menunjukkan lautan mungkin telah terbentuk 4,4 miliar tahun yang lalu.{{r|nature1}} Pada awal [[eon]] [[Arkean]], lautan sudah menutupi Bumi. Formasi awal ini sulit dijelaskan karena ada masalah yang dikenal sebagai [[paradoks Matahari muda yang redup]]. Bintang diketahui akan bertambah terang dengan bertambahnya usia, dan pada saat pembentukannya, Matahari hanya memancarkan 70% dari daya saat ini. Banyak model memprediksi bahwa Bumi pernah tertutup oleh es.{{r|Sagan|Kasting03}} Solusi yang memungkinkan adalah, bahwa ada banyak [[karbon dioksida]] dan [[metana]] yang menghasilkan [[efek rumah kaca]]. Karbon dioksida mungkin dihasilkan oleh gunung berapi, dan metana dihasilkan oleh mikroba. Gas rumah kaca lainnya, yaitu [[amonia]] mungkin juga dikeluarkan oleh gunung berapi, namun dihancurkan secara cepat oleh radiasi ultraviolet.{{r|Gale|page1=83}}
{{Main|Fanerozoikum}}
[[Berkas:Cooksonia pertoni revised.png|right|thumb|Rekonstruksi salah satu [[tumbuhan berpembuluh]] pertama di Bumi, dari genus ''[[Cookconia]]'', hidup pada pertengahan [[Silur]] hingga [[Devon (periode)|Devon Awal]], sekitar {{nowrap|433–393 juta}} tahun lalu. Sejak periode [[Devon (periode)|Devon]], daratan dikolonisasi oleh tumbuhan darat.]]
Fanerozoikum adalah [[eon]] yang sedang berjalan saat ini di Bumi. Eon ini dimulai sekitar {{nowrap|542 juta}} tahun yang lalu. Eon ini dibagi menjadi tiga era—[[Paleozoikum]], [[Mesozoikum]] dan [[Kenozoikum]],{{r|shortTimeScale}}—dan merupakan masa ketika kehidupan multiseluler terdiversifikasi sangat luas ke hampir semua organisme yang dikenal saat ini.<ref>{{cite book |title= The Dyanmic Earth System|last= Patwardhan|first= A.M.|authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2010|publisher= PHI Learning Private Limited|location= New Delhi|isbn=978-81-203-4052-7|page= 146|pages= |url= http://books.google.com/?id=EOgZJZaA-Q0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=dynamic+earth+system#v=onepage&q=dynamic%20earth%20system&f=false|accessdate=}}</ref>
=== Era Paleozoikum ===
==== Evolusi tetrapoda ====
[[Berkas:Tiktaalik BW.jpg|thumb|left|Ilustrasi ''[[Tiktaalik]]'', seekor ikan purba dengan sirip menyerupai anggota badan, leluhur dari [[tetrapoda]]. Rekonstruksi dari fosil berusia sekitar 375 juta tahun.]]
Pada akhir periode [[Ordovisium]], 443 juta tahun yang lalu,{{r|shortTimeScale}} terjadi lagi kepunahan masal, mungkin disebabkan oleh [[zaman es]].{{r|bbc-ordovician}} Sekitar 380–375 juta tahun yang lalu, [[tetrapoda]] pertama berevolusi dari ikan.{{r|clack-sa}} Diperkirakan bahwa sirip berevolusi menjadi anggota badan yang memungkinkan tetrapoda pertama yang mengangkat kepala mereka keluar dari air untuk menghirup udara. Hal ini memungkinkan mereka untuk hidup di air yang miskin oksigen atau mengejar mangsa kecil di perairan dangkal.{{r|clack-sa}} Kemudian mereka berkelana di darat untuk waktu yang singkat. Beberapa dari mereka dapat beradaptasi dengan keadaan di darat dan menghabiskan hidup mereka di darat saat dewasa, meskipun mereka menetas di dalam air dan kembali untuk bertelur. Inilah asal mula [[amfibia|amfibi]]. Sekitar 365 juta tahun yang lalu, periode [[peristiwa kepunahan|kepunahan massal]] lainnya terjadi, yang kemungkinan disebabkan oleh pendinginan global.<ref>{{Cite book|last=McGhee, Jr |first=George R. |year=1996 |title=The Late Devonian Mass Extinction: the Frasnian/Famennian Crisis |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=0-231-07504-9}}</ref> Tanaman berevolusi dengan menghasilkan [[biji]], yang secara dramatis mempercepat penyebaran mereka di darat, pada sekitar waktu ini (kira-kira 360 juta tahun yang lalu).{{r|willis|waikato}}
Sekitar {{nowrap|20 juta}} tahun kemudian (340 juta tahun yang lalu{{r|Dawkins-Ancestors|page1=293–296}}), telur dengan cangkang keras mulai berkembang, yang dapat diletakkan di tanah, memberikan manfaat kelangsungan hidup bagi embrio tetrapoda. Hal ini mengakibatkan perbedaan antara [[amniota]] dengan [[amfibia|amfibi]]. 30 juta tahun kemudian (310 juta tahun yang lalu{{r|Dawkins-Ancestors|page1=254–256}}) terlihat perbedaan antara ''[[synapsida]]'' (termasuk mamalia) dengan ''[[sauropsida]]'' (termasuk burung dan reptil). Kelompok-kelompok lain organisme terus berkembang, dan garis penyimpangan pada ikan, serangga, bakteri, dan sebagainya, meskipun secara detail tidak dikenali.
Periode dari 900–200 SM dinyatakan sebagai [[Zaman Poros]] bagi peradaban manusia, yaitu zaman ketika fondasi spiritualitas umat manusia terjadi serentak dan mandiri di beberapa belahan dunia. Tradisi filosofis yang berkembang pada zaman tersebut meliputi: [[monoteisme]] di [[Persia]] dan [[Kanaan]]; [[Platonisme]] di [[Yunani]]; [[Buddhisme]], [[Jainisme]], dan [[Hinduisme]] di India; [[Konfusianisme]] dan [[Taoisme]] di Cina. Berbagai adat dan [[sains]] (dalam bentuk primitif) bermunculan, seperti sistem [[teokrasi]] dan produksi [[kereta perang]]. Di [[Mediterania]] dan [[Timur Tengah]], peradaban-peradaban kuno berkembang dan melakukan perdagangan, serta bertempur demi wilayah dan sumber daya. Tak lama kemudian sistem [[imperium]] mulai berkembang. Sekitar 500 SM, ada sejumlah peradaban maju di [[Timur Tengah]], [[Iran]], [[India]], [[Cina]], dan [[Yunani]], yang sedang menuju masa kejayaannya atau menuju masa keruntuhannya.{{r|McNeill|page1=3}} Beberapa peradaban bertahan hingga abad modern meskipun tidak sejaya dulu, dan beberapa di antaranya memberi pengaruh atau fondasi bagi [[Dunia Barat]], seperti [[Yunani Kuno|Yunani]] dan [[Romawi Kuno]]. Seiring perkembangan peradaban, beberapa agama didirikan, seperti [[Kristen]] (abad ke-1) dan [[Islam]] (abad ke-7).
[[Berkas:Tokyo at dusk.jpg|240px|thumb|Panorama [[Tokyo]], kota dengan penduduk terpadat di dunia, dan salah satu kota yang berpengaruh dalam perekonomian dunia.<ref>{{cite book |author=Sassen, Saskia |title=The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo |year=2001 |publisher=Princeton University Press |edition=2nd |isbn=0-691-07063-6 |authorlink=Saskia Sassen}}</ref>]]
Pada abad ke-14, zaman [[Renaisans]] dimulai di [[Italia]] dengan kemajuan dalam bidang agama, seni, dan sains.{{r|McNeill|page1=317–319}} Pada masa itu, Gereja Kristen sebagai entitas politik kehilangan sebagian besar kekuasaannya. Tahun 1492, [[Kristoforus Kolumbus]] mencapai benua [[Amerika]], mengawali perubahan besar pada [[Dunia Baru]]. Peradaban Eropa mulai berubah sejak 1500-an, mengantarkannya pada [[Revolusi Ilmiah]] dan [[Revolusi Industri|Industri]]. Benua tersebut mulai menebarkan dominansi politis dan budaya pada masyarakat lain di seluruh dunia pada suatu masa yang dikenal sebagai Era Kolonial.{{r|McNeill|page1=295–299}} Pada abad ke-18, gerakan kultural yang dikenal sebagai [[Abad Pencerahan]] kemudian membentuk mentalitas bangsa Eropa dan berperan penting dalam sikap sekuler mereka. Dari tahun 1914 sampai 1918, dan dari 1939 sampai 1945, bangsa-bangsa di seluruh dunia berada dalam [[perang dunia]]. [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]] yang didirikan setelah [[Perang Dunia I]] merupakan usaha pertama dalam membangunan lembaga internasional untuk menyelesaikan permasalahan secara damai. Setelah gagal mencegah [[Perang Dunia II]]—konflik paling berdarah dalam sejarah umat manusia—lembaga tersebut digantikan oleh [[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]]. Setelah perang usai, banyak negara menyatakan kemerdekannya, baik dengan usaha sendiri maupun pemberian bangsa lain dalam suatu periode [[dekolonisasi]]. [[Amerika Serikat]] dan [[Uni Soviet]] menjadi negara adikuasa untuk sementara, dan terlibat dalam persaingan yang dikenal sebagai [[Perang Dingin]] sampai disolusi di kemudian hari. Seiring transportasi dan komunikasi yang semakin mutakhir, perkara politis dan ekonomi antarbangsa menjadi kian berseluk-beluk. Hal ini dikenal sebagai [[globalisasi]] yang dapat mendatangkan konflik atau kerja sama.
{{Clear}}
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